Essay Automobiles Essay

What aspects are considered when buying a car today? What aspects were considered when buying a car in the 60’s 70’s 80’s? What has changed for people to consider buying the cars that are being bought today? Automobiles Automobiles have been around for quite some time. They have changed in many aspects when compared to cars we have today and cars before the 80’s. A much wider variety of automobiles are available in today’s market than the variety that was available before the 80’s. The popular cars in the past were mainly American origin and had a similar base design. Around the 60’s, 70’s and 80’s many people did not have automobiles like they do today. A lot has changed for automobiles from then and now, aspects such as fuel economy, maintenance, reliability, durability, features and technology are all put into consideration when buying a car. It was the time when automobiles began being available in some average families household. The aspects that are considered today when buying a car aren’t the aspects that were considered back then. When people bought cars in the 60’s through the 80’s, they didn’t need to worry about the fuel efficiency of vehicles. Gasoline was very cheap and everyone who had a car was able to afford it with ease. A gallon of gasoline in the 60’s was about forty cents, and it went up to about seventy five cents around the 80’s. The average engine size that was in vehicles in the 60’s through the 80’s was a V8 engine. A V8 engine uses a tremendous amount of gasoline and the average fuel economy rating for vehicles in that time frame was about twelve mpg (miles per gallon)( Nicholls, Richard. ). In today’s world the most common aspect that is considered by a person looking to buy a car is the fuel economy rating. Due to the high prices on gasoline, people cannot afford to buy big cars or ones with big engines. Gas prices have gone up drastically in the last 15 years, and are still increasing. Car manufacturers began developing electrical, hybrid and fuel-cell vehicles to get back into business and help people save money on gas. Many car companies lost great amounts of money because they weren’t able to sell many of their vehicles. The Japanese were the first to develop hybrid and electrical vehicles. These vehicles began to get popular quickly because of the efficient fuel economy ratings. These vehicles became popular to companies that gave vehicles to their employees, taxi services, and to some public transportation vehicles. Car manufacturers in other countries began developing hybrid and electrical vehicles to offer a wide variety of vehicles for buyers and to get back on track in business. Many of these hybrid and electrical vehicles didn’t have an attractive look to them, so manufacturers needed to work on other aspects to attract customers. (Westbrook, Michael H) Automobiles in the 60’s through the 80’s were usually two door vehicles. These vehicles were very attractive at the time, and everyone who was able to buy a car, didn’t care about other aspects in vehicles aside from the looks. It was the time when vehicles just began being popular and people didn’t know much about cars, and determined what to buy only by the looks. People didn’t care about the amount of airbags or how much gas the car burned. Cars didn’t have bad reputations at the time because; it was when they were just getting popular. Automobiles didn’t have pasts for people to think about and make a decision. Many of these vehicles had an almost equal value to one another. It isn’t the same way now; looks are just a small portion of what is considered when buying a car. (Hennessy, Kathryn, and Beth Landis. ) Looks has an important role for a person when he or she is buying a car. An automobile can have an absolutely stunning fuel economy rating, with a durable engine, and a great price; but if its ugly, it most likely won’t be considered. Having the specifications that people look for under the hood is not enough for one to buy that vehicle. It also needs to look attractive, and grab the attention from people around it. Car manufacturers have many options for each vehicle they make. A buyer can walk up to a car in a dealership, and have many options for what is under the hood. The same car would most likely be available in a four cylinder a six cylinder or even an 8 cylinder. If a person is looking for a car with that look, and that can be fuel efficient, he or she would most likely go with the four cylinder vehicle. If another buyer is looking for a car with that look, but with more power and muscle, he or she would go with the six or eight cylinder model of that vehicle. We have much more options in today’s market, but even with the many options that car manufacturers offer, these vehicles usually have a down side to them still. (Hennessy, Kathryn, and Beth Landis. ) During the time between the 60’s and the 80’s, when people were buying vehicles, these vehicles didn’t have much of a reputation behind them. There weren’t any sayings such as â€Å"GM cars do not last long† or â€Å"Ford’s break down easily†. It was the time when these cars had just started being popular, and there wasn’t much history behind them. People didn’t have much feedback about the cars, to give advice for. Back then, there weren’t as many cars on the roads as there are today, so accidents weren’t as common as they are now, back then. Owners or anyone who was seeking to buy a vehicle wasn’t looking to buy a car for its safety ratings, or the amount of air bags that were installed in these vehicles. These factors didn’t have much of an effect for a person to think about it. People knew that a Bugatti was a much better car than a ford, but this decision wasn’t made according to the amount of air bags, or safety ratings of the vehicle. ( Berliant, Adam.) When buying a car today, many aspects come into role play, and two of the most important factors are reliability and durability. Many cars have a bad reputation; many GM vehicles are known to die out after reaching 100,000 miles. When buying a car, the owner would appreciate it if he or she can sell the car after reaching a certain amount of miles, and not have a problem selling it. It is important for any person to feel confident that his or her vehicle will not die out quickly and can last a long time. Many American cars have a bad reputation for being known to die out quickly. Many foreign car manufacturers like Toyota have a good reputation and are known to make vehicles that can last up to 500,000 miles if used well. This has a big impact for anyone in the reliability and durability aspect, because he or she doesn’t need to worry about the car dying out quickly, or if he or she can sell it after some time. There are a lot more cars on roads today, then the amount there were in the 60’s, 70’s or the 80’s. Meaning that, there are a lot more accidents and a lot more deaths and injuries that are caused from automobile incidents. Safety has an important role when a car is being bought, people check for specifications such as the amount of air bags, safety ratings, ABS, or the number of impact beams that are installed in the vehicles. A driver is much more comfortable in a car which he or she can feel safer in. Aside from just reliability and durability, many other aspects such as features are given value to when buying a car. (Berliant, Adam. ) The features that were offered in vehicles throughout the 60’s, 70’s, and 80’s have a wide range of differences between them. The 60’s was a time when automobiles were available in the market, and almost all vehicles had a similar system of operating. Features included seat belts, disk brakes, gear boxes and a few more. These were improvements that lead to a true automobile; the first systems that were used to develop vehicles had flaws and needed redesign to fix these flaws. Throughout those years, features such as impact beams started to appear on vehicles. The most important feature that was added to the automobile was the gearbox. They had started off with manual gearboxes with 3 gears, and later developed into gearboxes with a reverse and up to 5 gears. The improvement that had changed it all was the automatic gearbox. In the late 80’s automatic gearboxes began appearing in many vehicles, and made it much easier for people to operate. Other features such as power windows, power mirrors, central locking systems, and cruise control began appearing in most vehicles in the late 80’s and 90’s. (Hennessy, Kathryn, and Beth Landis. ) Features that were optional for vehicles in the late 80’s and early 90’s are available in the base model of nearly all vehicles today. Features that are offered in vehicles today are much more advanced. This occurs because as technology grows, this equipment became available in many shapes and forms. This allows equipment that was not available for automobiles in the past such as high quality sound systems, DVD entertainment systems and keyless entry, to be available in modern day vehicles. People used to look for features such as automatic gearboxes, or ABS break systems, but now those features don’t have the same value because they are available for anyone. In today’s world people look for features such as remoteless key entry, Bluetooth wireless technology, on star systems, electronic stability and much more. The growing of technology may have increased the options that a person has for when looking to buy a car, but it has made maintenance and repairs much more expensive. (Duffy, James E. Modern Automotive Technology) The popular cars in the 60’s through the 80’s were mainly American cars with big engines and a lot of muscle. These vehicles were the most popular vehicles and if any maintenance was needed for these vehicles, nearly all auto shops would have known the process of repair for these vehicles. Majority of these vehicles had a similar style and look to them and they had that similar concept under the hood as well. These cars were made in America, so any replacement parts that were needed, weren’t hard to find. People didn’t need to worry about waiting for parts to be imported so the proper repairs can be done; it was available and a lot easier to get a hold of. The automobile market was doing very well, and this was helpful for car owners because replacement parts weren’t as expensive as they are today. Labor wasn’t expensive at the time, and workers weren’t paid as much money. It has changed a lot over the times and the maintenance aspect of automobiles has become a problem for many. (The Peoples History. ) Today, we have many vehicles from all around the world, with different types of engineering. In America, there are cars from many Asian and European countries. Many of these manufacturers are a lot more successful than others and have more opportunities. The Japanese have a lead in the auto industry and are able to produce vehicles in America rather than import them from other countries. A lot of money is used in the starting of such an operation but saves a lot of money over time. Many American automobile companies move their factories to countries such as Mexico, and some South American Countries where employment and land is cheaper. This causes a big irony in the maintenance field of automobiles; replacement parts for Japanese cars become cheaper than the replacement parts for American cars, in America. In the maintenance field of automobiles today, it is a lot more expensive than what it was before. When people want to go to the dealer for some type of maintenance that is needed, they can end up spending a lot of money for a simple repair. This is due to the amount of money that is needed for the product to be made and imported from another country. People choose to rather go to a local auto shop or a mechanic shop, and get their job done for a lot cheaper. The problem with this is that since there are so many types of vehicles in today’s world, a mechanic isn’t always able to work with some vehicles due to the lack of knowledge he has about specific vehicles. When a mechanic is found, the total cost of repairs ends up being nearly the same as what the dealer would charge because, the mechanic is able to charge more money knowing that the owner of the vehicle doesn’t have much options. (â€Å"Auto Maintenance – Scot Richard) Many aspects are to be put into consideration when looking to buy an automobile. The factors that were put into consideration in the past have changed a lot to when compared to know. It is hard to find the car that meets the requirements for a person seeking to buy a car. The automobile industry is a lot bigger than what it used to be, and more options are available. The aspects, fuel efficiency, looks, durability, reliability, features and maintenance, are all considered, the goal is to find the one that meets each individuals standards. The aspects that are put into consideration have changed many times, and will keep changing as technology grows. Work Cited 1. â€Å"Auto Maintenance – Scot Richard. † Personal interview. 20 Apr. 2012. 2. Berliant, Adam. The Used Car Reliability and Safety Guide. Cincinnati, OH: Betterway, 1994. Print. 3. Duffy, James E. Modern Automotive Technology. South Holland, IL: Goodheart-Willcox, 1994. Print. 4. Hennessy, Kathryn, and Beth Landis. Hester. Car: The Definitive Visual History of the Automobile. New York, NY: DK Pub. , 2011. Print. 5. Nicholls, Richard. American Classic Cars. 1st ed. Rochester: Grange, 2008. Print. 6. The Peoples History. â€Å"Money and Inflation 1970’s. † History including Popular Culture, Prices, Events, Technology and Inventions. The People History Where People Memories and History Join, 2004. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. . 7. Westbrook, Michael H. The Electric Car. 1st ed. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers. Print.

Globalization Of The Market Economy Essay

Much has been said how globalization has internationalize the market economy and how this system was able to integrate and create international partnerships between and among nations. Globalization is not just a phenomenon – it is a system, a new world system that has replaced the Cold War. Globalization has transcended economic and political borders without so much undermining the national sovereignty of any nation. This essay will document how the key players and catalysts accomplished the integration of a very complex world market economy, allowing the creation of the so-called global village. Specifically, this essay will look into the following: ? the creation of international bodies collectively known as The Bretton Woods institutions; ? the largest regional trade organizations: how they come into being, its membership, and how they are being seen sometimes as stumbling blocs, instead of building blocs; ? multi- or transnational corporations; and ? technological revolution (information and communication technology, or ICT, and the Internet). The list above will help us see globalization, an intangible system, as an observable, concrete, and measurable concept. This essay will also attempt to explain the future of globalization so as to prepare other areas that it has not penetrated yet, and at the same time, to allow those who are experiencing it already to take advantage of the strengths and opportunities in the system and be prepared with the threats that come with it. Understanding globalization There are two very interesting books on globalization that can serve as a starting point of this essay – MacGillivray’s A brief history of globalization: The Untold story of our incredible shrinking planet and Friedman’s The Lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization. MacGillivray argues that the term â€Å"globalization† has rapidly become one of the most overused words in the field of international relations. Unfortunately, its being overused does not guarantee understanding of the concept. In fact, this is one of the least understood or at least broadly construed concepts in the same field. It clearly covers connections between and among political, economic, cultural, and even environmental issues or concerns. And with the recent advance in information technology, we also know that globalization also concerns itself about technology and even war. MacGillivray described globalization as the interaction and integration between and among people, corporations, and governments across national boundaries. Such web of interaction and integration is motivated by international trade and investment with the help of technology, particularly, information technology (MacGillivray 2006). The importance of technology in the era of globalization was further elaborated and described by Friedman in his book The Lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization through this passage: â€Å"In the Cold War, the most frequently asked question was ‘How big is your missile? ’ In globalization, the most frequently asked question is ‘How fast is your modem? ’† As compared to other writers who believe that globalization is a phase of human evolution, or maybe a trend, Friedman believes that it is more of an international system which existence was significantly felt after the Cold War period. He argued that the movement of globalization in this contemporary period is just an extension of the previous period which has marked the end of the First World War (Friedman 1999). Whereas the Cold War has changed the whole world into a bipolar one, globalization has changed this into a global village with shared or integrated resources in terms of capital, technology, political and market sentiments, and information across and, even more interesting, through national borders. Establishing new grounds: The collapse of economic and market frontiers Globalization’s effects are very much visible in some aspects of international relations. In this essay, the effect on economic sovereignty would be the focus. It should be noted though that as far as these effects are concerned, globalization does not destabilize the sovereignty and legitimacy of a nation in any one way or another. With globalization, we could say that the economic borders of any sovereign nation has somewhat been transcended, i. e. , protectionist policies are either challenged if not eliminated completely. The Bretton Woods system: The first attempt to international openness One of the best ways of seeing globalization’s effect to international relations is by looking at international financial institutions having direct or indirect effect to sovereign nations. While they do not exactly dictate what the economic policies of countries should be, these bodies without a doubt influence the making of such policies. In the early 1930s, currency exchange rates, even those of the major economies, are unstable. A number of countries are protectionists and had very restrictive trade policies. A decade after that, Great Britain and the United States, the only two super powers then, proposed the establishment of international financial or monetary institutions that would aim to stabilize exchange rates and, more importantly, improve international trade. In 1944, 44 nations through their representatives convened at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. The participants of the conference met to plan the recovery and eventual development of post-war Europe and to discuss the monetary and prevailing economic issues of that period – protectionist trade policies and unstable exchange rates of a number of countries (Bretton Woods Project 2007; Canadian Economy Online 2007). This has given birth to the Bretton Woods Agreement. The agreement aims to create a post-war international monetary system of convertible currencies, fixed and stable exchange rates, and free trade across geographical regions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (which was later on referred to as the World Bank) were established to facilitate the objectives of the agreement. The resulting bodies from this Bretton Woods convention have definitely affected the economic sovereignty of countries. Taking the case of International Monetary Fund, its main areas of concern are surveillance (advice and appraisal on the policies of its member economies), financial or monetary assistance for members experiencing short- to medium-term economic problems and difficulties, and technical assistance as well as training in monetary and fiscal policies (Ibid). The Bretton Woods agreement prevented currency and exchange rates competition and promoted monetary cooperation among its member economies. Under this system, member nations and economies agreed to have a system of currency exchange rates that could be adjusted or computed within defined parities with the US dollar. This currency exchange rate could also be adjusted to correct a basic disequilibrium in balance of payments as approved by IMF. Advocates of the Bretton Woods system argued that establishment of a stable exchange rate would discourage the â€Å"beggar thy neighbour† policies, which would eventually benefit several, if not all, member economies by the promotion and expansion of international market and trade. The competitiveness of currency exchange rates decreased overtime due to infrequent changes in parities. Some expressed concerns that a fixed currency exchange rate system may prohibit countries enough liberty for them to actually pursue and implement their own monetary and fiscal policies. IMF uses both its surveillance as well as technical assistance work or functions in developing codes and standards of good practice in its areas of responsibility (Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund 2007). The World Bank, which is officially named International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, is actually a development institution. Its mandate is to build a climate of healthy investment, sufficient jobs, and sustainable growth. It also invests in poor people and empowers them to participate in development projects. Its efforts on poverty reduction can be observed in national as well as global levels (Schiff and Winters 2003, 15–16). The World Bank gives emphasis on extending aids to poor and developing nations. But more than just these financial aids or loans, the bank gives advice on policymaking and training to countries needing them. Now, in return for IMF’s and World Bank’s financial support or any other kind of advice, recipients of these financial aids should implement necessary structural adjustment policies that will encourage healthy public spending, especially on social services delivery systems. These policies usually decrease government’s participation in the economy (or market, to be specific). Currently, the World Bank is the largest international lending institution dealing with least developed to developing countries (Ibid, 25–26). The World Trade Organization is probably the most â€Å"intrusive† of the three bodies established by the Bretton Woods convention. The convention created a provision for an International Trade Organization. However, such plan lay dormant until the actual establishment of the World Trade Organization in early 1990s. This original plan did not materialize in the form it was originally conceptualized because of the refusal of the US Congress to endorse it. (The refusal of the US Congress is primarily anchored on the idea that had the International Trade Organization been approved then, this body would have the power of a supranational body that can implement sanctions, penalties, or disciplines to any member economies that the ITO deem violating the principles and agreements reached at the Bretton Woods. ) In lieu of this, an international organization, so to speak, in the form of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade or GATT was created. As an international body, it has the primary responsibility of reducing trade barriers through multilateral and multinational negotiations. ITO, however, does not have the power to effect any policies, i. e. , its agreements are non-binding (Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events 2007). The World Trade Organization came into existence on 1995. It replaced GATT as an international body overseeing the multilateral trading system. One hundred and twenty-eight (128) countries had signed GATT by 1994. And as of the year 2007, there are 151 full-fledged members and 30 economies/countries having observer status. Every member country of the WTO has the right to challenge or simply question other countries’ local, state, or federal laws granted that such laws may impede efficient and effective international trade. In such cases, if the WTO judges the law to contain violations of WTO ideals, it [WTO] may order the government to overturn or modify the law or else, the country can experience or suffer from trade sanctions. This is exactly why the US Congress did not approve the ratification of the treaty for the creation or establishment of the WTO (Ibid). These three international bodies have clearly penetrated the economic barriers, even political to some extent, of any of its member economies. For this purpose, however, it is clear that these effects are for the benefit of the member economy. While it is clear that these Bretton Woods bodies do not directly dictate economic policies, it has the power to influence its members to act towards its direction. Again, this is not to emphasize that economic sovereignty is being taken away from the country itself, but clearly, the economic barriers have been breached. Regional trade associations or blocs Regional trade associations are â€Å"offshoots†, so to speak, of the globalization phenomenon where inter-nation or inter-state agreement is established. These associations are actually the ones that manage, promote, and direct all the trade activities of the concerned group of countries or regions of the world (UC Atlas of Global Inequality, 2007). This is a case where instead of an institution penetrating the borders of a country, the sovereign country itself initiates the â€Å"surrender† of their economic, or more particularly, trading, policies. Regional trade associations, in general terms, are groupings of economies or nations at a governmental level that aims to promote, manage, and encourage trade within and among their own region and defend its member countries or member economies against a larger global competition. Protection against this larger global competition is done by most countries by establishing tariffs on commodities produced by its members economies, import quotas, onerous bureaucratic import processes, government subsidies, and technical and other non-tariff barriers. Trade is not an isolated activity and other areas of relations between countries or economies involved are also affected: political, security, and other issues affecting the region (Ibid). A good example of a regional trade bloc affecting other aspects of inter-national relations is the case of the European Union or EU. This group is the world’s largest trade association, and by far, the most effective in terms of certain aspects. EU has harbored not just economic but also political ambitions extending way beyond the free trading arrangements entered into by the participating economies (Gibb and Michalak, 1994, 75). The ideological foundations of EU were actually focused on ensuring development and maintaining international or even inter-regional stability, specifically, encapsulating communist or socialist expansion in the post-WWII Europe. EU’s plan actually involves possible joint policies on military security and citizenship. Some researchers believe that trade associations complement globalized trade. There are those, on the other hand, who believe that regionalism is a threat to free trade due to its protectionist nature having conservative policies being implemented by these blocs that shield the member- countries from outside competition of global trade. Such debates contain sharp disagreements. In the same work by Gibb and Michalak (1994, 1), they noted, â€Å"the multilateral trading system is in decline and regionalism is on the ascendancy. † They emphasized that regional trade blocs are an alternative form of trade that â€Å"attempts to counter more aggressive policies of trade, especially as espoused by the WTO. †

Contract Scenario

Recently, Danny Davidson sold a family home to his friends Paul and Priscilla Peterson whereby entering into a $250,000 verbal agreement for the purchase of new home. However, Danny neglected to tell Paul and Priscilla about Ned the neighbor and the emerging dispute pertaining to the boundaries of the south property. Once the purchase was final the Petersons proceeded to invest an estimate of $65,000 for landscaping as well as implementing a new Italian bathtub in the bathroom.As the Peterson’s proceed to upgrade their new home cracks developed in the new tile whereby causing the bathroom floor to sink because of a landscaping issue with the soil on the property. Subsequently, a breach of contract emerged whereby causing the Peterson’s to file a suit against their friend. Valid or Invalid Contract â€Å"According to Kubasek, et al, legally binding contract must include the necessary elements â€Å"such as,† legal object, capacity along with consideration (2012, p. 306).However, in the scenario the couple entered a verbal agreement with a friend for the purchase of the home â€Å"thereby,† contingent on the information provided by a friend. The consideration estimated $250,000 for the purchase of the home. Nevertheless, neither of the entities were minors or endured some form of mental illness or legally intoxicated whereby indicating that each party was in complete capacity entering the aspects of a verbal agreement. Consequently, the contract was legally binding because the instrument met the necessary elements of the legal object, consideration, and capacity renders the validity of the contract enforceable.Breach and Statue of Fraud Conversely, the agreement between Danny and the couple lacked the elements of genuine assent because of a failure to disclose pertinent information pertaining to the neighbor’s boundary dispute along with the existing issues with the soil. Danny misrepresented as well as withheld information â⠂¬Å"in order,† to sell the house to the Petersons. Although the contract was valid â€Å"yet,† the Peterson’s suit claiming breach of contract lacked the aspects of genuine assent. When entering a contractual agreement each entity should enter freely.â€Å"Sometimes,† to obtain acceptance the offeror will implement improper measures â€Å"such as,† misrepresenting or non-disclosure of pertinent information employing undue influence, fraud as well as duress. Under these circumstances the offeree can implement the enforceable agreement defense â€Å"especially,† if the agreement lacks genuine assent (Kubasek, et al, 2012, p. 306). â€Å"According to,† the Statues of Fraud implementing a verbal agreement serves as a violation whereby assuming that the contractual agreement was not in writing nor filed or recorded. Agreements pertaining to the sale of land must be in writing.The rationale is because without a paper trail the agreement is n on-existent (Kubasek, et al, 2012, p. 408). Although a written agreement does not incur specific requirements â€Å"however,† the individual’s names, address along with the object and terms of the contract, consideration, and signature of each entity are the necessary elements for developing a valid contract (Kubasek, et al, 2012, p. 411). Defenses and Remedies Assuming that the couple would order a property inspection Danny made the decision to withhold pertinent information pertaining to the issues with the soil.Even though an inspection was not performed â€Å"but,† this does not explicate rationale of Danny’s choice for non-disclosure of his dispute with Ned the neighbor’s boundary issues on the south side of the property. To rectify the situations pertaining to the soil and property dispute Danny could order a land surveyor along with providing a reimbursement to his friends for the incurring damages. Perhaps if Danny chooses these options cou ld mend a long- time relationship along with eliminating a possible legal battle.â€Å"On the other hand,† the Petersons could take an alternate route by pursing legal recourse for breach of contract whereby making it necessary to terminate both the relationship as well as the verbal agreement without seeking any other damages Nevertheless, it would look as if the entities are leaving money on the table by ending the contractual relationship without pursuing further damages. Even though litigations are costly â€Å"however,† the parties perceive that termination serves as means of relational retaliation (Wilkerson-Roger & Hoffman, 2010, p. 1044). Trial or ADRSeveral measures can assist with resolving the Davidson and Peterson dispute involves implementing alternate dispute resolution measures â€Å"including,† litigation. Conversely, measures to resolve ongoing disputes emerge in various forms along with employing a third party to make decision in difficult situ ations through mediation and negotiations. Implementing these particular measures decreases the cost of legalities. Moreover, negotiations, and mediations are quick and fair whereby allowing each entity to part in the process of decision-making ultimately saving the relationship.Furthermore, relationships tend to deteriorate because of the cost and time spent in litigation. Contract Administration and Recommendations Clearly, the Petersons and Danny Davidson did not adhere to the principles of the contract creation. Even though the party’s main focus was on the contracts creation â€Å"however,† the parties did not secure the central functions, and definitions as well as compliance, and functional details of the agreement. Hence, the legalities of the agreement would not have been a concern for the Statues of Fraud if the parties were entering into a written contract.As a consultant, to remedy the situation between the Petersons and Danny Davidson would require the neg otiating of a new sales contract for the house. In addition to, creating new a legal contract that is valid and enforceable provides a future evidence of an existing agreement. Conclusion The aspects of verbal and oral contracts are not always recognized or enforceable even if the essential elements are visible. Nevertheless, entering a verbal contract should be put into words that indicated the agreements conditional terms along with the signatures of the parties involved provides visible evidence of an existing contract.

Animals Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Animals Rights - Essay Example Though the animal owners make big claims regarding the proper and appropriate care of the speech creatures they have maintained in their supervision and custody, yet the available facts and figures aptly disregard these claims made in respect of apposite treatment of the animals. First and the foremost responsibility of the masters towards their animals is provision of sufficient food according to the tastes and requirements of their respective carnivorous and herbivorous animals. Nevertheless, one of the most frequent complaints made against the animal-keepers include the poor quality and lesser quantity of the food being offered by the owners. It is particularly the case with the beasts e.g. lions and tigers, which just rely upon meat in order to survive. Somehow, their masters often make complains regarding their problems while affording the meat in such a high quantity. But the question is this that if they are unable to provide the beasts with sufficient meat, should they have a ny reason to keep them hungry on ethical grounds. Since animals are physically far more powerful and energetic than humans, they certainly require more food in order to survive on the one side and for performing different activities on the other. It is therefore adequate quantity of food in necessary for keeping them healthy. Another prominent cruelty inflicted upon the animals is the attack made on their freedom and liberty. The animals have the right to move here and there without having any restrictions upon them. Somehow, some areas could be specified for their free movements so that they could not harm the humans. It has aptly been observed that most of the â€Å"owners keep the animals in chains; it is particularly the case with the beasts i.e.... This paper stresses that there are many steps to be taken for the safety, protection and well-being of the animals. The political authorities should impose complete banishment on the animal hunt, by laying special stress upon banning the hunting of rare animals. In addition, â€Å"complete and regular checks up of all the pets and beasts kept by their masters must be declared compulsory one from the governmental recognized veterinary hospitals and medical centers in order to assure their health, fitness and cleanliness†. This report makes a conclusion that it becomes evident that animals are the sign and symbol of the beauties, tenderness, delicacy and aesthetics of nature; in the same way they are equally representatives of the valor, strength, power and aggression maintained by nature. Nonetheless, â€Å"the animals are in an extremely vulnerable state of affairs in the residences, circuses, zoos and other commercial centers, where they are inflicted with various kinds of cruelties and atrocities†. The beasts are not the exception altogether, as they have to undergo electric shocks and severe tortures at the hands of their stone-hearted masters. There is an urgent need for the establishment of regularity authorities for the imposition of strict bans on the hunting, trading and torturing on the animals, as well as for the assurance of proper food and cleanliness of the speechless creature, so that the humanity could be escaped from the natural disasters and calamities come as the revenge agai nst the criminalities and offences against the hapless creatures.

Marketing Communications Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Marketing Communications Plan - Essay Example 4). A marketing communication plan aims at building market awareness of a product or service. It also aims at coming up with the ways and means of reaching the market and impacting it as much as possible The product in this marketing communication plan is the iPhone and this plan has been designed using the SOSTT+4Ms structure (Blythe 2006, p. 53) IPhone is a brand of smartphones created and marketed by the Apple brand. It was introduced for the first time in the market in 2007 and has undergone four transformations. Currently, the most advanced of the iPhones is the iPhone 4, which has greater capability than the first three generations of iPhones that were introduced into the market. The first two models of the iPhones have ceased being produced. IPhones were the first to add a compass and a front facing camera to their features. The first iPhone was made public in 2007 and it immediately received massive approval in the market with millions of sales being made in the months to come. A year later the iPhone 3G was introduced in the market again and in 2009 the iPhone 3GS was introduced. This latest model was much cheaper than the others, as Apple was making an attempt to get a hold of a larger market than with the first two generations of iPhones. With the iPhone 4 being the latest model in the market, the iPhone 3GS is the cheapest model in the market (Apple Inc., 2011). Upon the introduction of the iPhones into the market, sales have shot through the roof. Millions of sales were made in the first few quarters of the existence of the iPhones in the market. By the end of the financial year 2010, there were more than 72 million units of iPhones sold all over the world. It is expected that 2011 will show a tremendous improvement in these figures thanks to the introduction of the iPhone 4 into the market. Currently, the iPhone holds more than 50% of the worlds profit in mobile phone sales and has for a while

You can decide the topic whatever you want by those requirements I Essay - 1

You can decide the topic whatever you want by those requirements I pasted - Essay Example In order to create his plot and setting, Marquez uses an uncommon literary technique. For instance, he does not have a true main character. Garcia Marquez explored how capitalism can be used to rob contemporary societies using deeper human values. The main characters in the story show how capitalism can use human nature to exploit contemporary societies. Pelayo was among the first people to notice the old man. Though he was kind to the old man, he was not charitable or compassionate. His neighbors suggested that they should club the old man to death. This shows that people in this community are uncompassionate. Instead, he decided to keep the old man in his chicken house and charge admission fees to onlookers and the curious crowd. The main concerns for Pelayo are his sick child and family (Marquez 1). He was content to leave the theological and theoretical speculations to Father Gonzaga. Elisenda is Pelayo’s wife and she was concerned with practical matters. She suggested to her husband that they should charge an admission fee to anybody who wanted to see the old man. Though the old man brought numerous material advantages to the family, Elisenda portrayed an attitude of exasperation and annoyance. Elisenda is an exam ple of how capitalism exploits contemporary societies using human nature. Garcia Marquez used the conflicting actions of characters to unfold the story as a comical tragedy. After the old man’s usefulness dwindled, Elisenda began to see him as a nuisance. The old man became troublesome to Elisenda that she referred her new home as â€Å"hell full of angels† (Marquez 3). The new house was brought from the proceeds the family received from exhibiting the old man. The author’s statement that, â€Å"the angel was the only one who took no part in his own act. His only supernatural virtue seemed to be patience† shows how capitalism exploits contemporary societies (Marquez 2). This statement explains the situation in which the old

Korea and australia hofstede cultural differences Essay

Korea and australia hofstede cultural differences - Essay Example The Hofstede Report refers to the groundbreaking work of Geert Hofstede, whose studies into different nations has revealed a common consensus of five cultural dimensions according to which different countries can be compared. The truth is that over time, these dimensions have evolved according to the historical traditions, geographic boundaries, national perspectives and anything else that forms the cultural character of a people or country[1]. Differences in the Two Cultures, Recommendations and Analysis 1. Power Distance: Australians are used to a lower power distance between individuals than Koreans. Dassan Ltd. would therefore do well to cultivate an attitude of self respect and equality among people in its managers prior to sending them to Australia. This is a big mind shift from Korea, where the traditions demand respect from someone at a higher social or work position [2]. 2. Uncertainty Avoidance: Both Australians and South Koreans are used to a low level of uncertainty avoid ance. But whereas listening to a statement made by management would be enough for its validity among most Australians, the Koreans would prefer that this be committed to writing in the form of policy before it is accepted in their hearts and minds [3]. 3.

The Rules of the Game (1939) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Rules of the Game (1939) - Essay Example Its real prints were vanished during the strikes of World War II but it later (until the 1950’s) was redesigned almost completely by French film makers Jean Gaborit and Jacques Durand in cooperation with Jean Renoir. Today the film has been applauded and considered as one of the best films ever created in cinematic history. The main cast of the film comprised of Nora Gregor, Paulette Dubost and Marcel Dalio. Long Take and Deep Space Composition Long Take A long take is an unaltered or uninterrupted shot in a film that lasts much longer than usual shots in the same film or in general relative to others. It is carried out so as to enhance dramatic feel and narrative effect in the film. It is created normally using a special camera that could remain steady instead of shocks and imbalances, a Steadicam. Deep Space A film uses the element of deep space when noteworthy characters of an image are placed both near to and far away from the camera. Here, there is no need to focus on the elements in the image as what is the significance of deep focus. Often, directors want to show the real distance between two objects in a scene to the audience and that images near and distant to the camera are both important. The way of staging in a deep space composition is almost the opposite of shallow space. Jean Renoir is one of the directors who use deep space and deep focus in their films as their signature element. From the Film There are a number of sequences or scenes in the film with a long take and deep space composition. A sequence that can be discussed here is of the stage drama which is performed in a horror genre to entertain the audience. It is a fascinating stage show with interaction with the audience and a piano score as well in the background. This sequence is a single shot with no editing and cuts and a heavy effortful camera work has been done to depict the drama and narration in it. The scene lasts for at least 1 minute 50 seconds without any halts. This se quence pertains to a climax in the film which is a famous house party sequence in which there is a stage performance by amateurs to entertain guests and neighbors. This sequence has been applauded as one of the best moves to show the work of long take and deep space compositions together with no cuts. Characters present are all guests and neighbors with non-professional but enthusiastic actors on the stage entertaining and interacting with the audience. The camera work carried out by Renoir in this sequence is phenomenal. The camera is moving forward and background for more than six or seven times; moving from audience to the stage and then to the backstage, forward into the house to the rooms and corridors and almost everywhere in the house. This camera work is quite appreciable effortless. Each and every character is visible whether near or distant to the camera which shows that a long take and a deep space both have been utilized efficiently. While watching this sequence, a user can see all the movements of characters and the clear picture of the background animations going on; this is an imperative attribute of a deep space composition that every character is visible and not blurred. The light work which seems like lanterns being floated in the air by those performers on the stage is quite nice of a work (Ebert R. 2004). Purpose of such sequences The purpose of long take or deep space compos

Environment analysis of Germany and Expansion of BYD Co., Ltd 03013 Essay - 1

Environment analysis of Germany and Expansion of BYD Co., Ltd 03013 - Essay Example The Third section is based on the recommendations of market entry strategy, and Section four includes marketing mix. The last section is based on the conclusion. Environmental factors have a huge impact on businesses; therefore, organization before taking start conducts the environmental analysis. Firm that are involved in systematic environmental assessment is more effective than those that do not conduct or analyze the environment. Environmental analysis is the study of factors that make impact on business and helps in identifying the opportunities for the organization and guide organizations to take actions that are appropriate in order to have the full advantage of opportunity (Jain, Trehan and Trehan 2009).Environment analysis can be divided into two segments macro and micro. The best common tool that is used to conduct the macro environmental analysis is PESTLE analysis (Bensoussan and Fleisehr 2012). 1) In Germany political conditions are in favor of the automobile industry, the government has policy to support the car industry through funding. In 2013, according to the estimates, the government made $1303 funding on per vehicle produced (The Conservation 2013). 2) The Country has policy to give a political response to the industry in case of crisis. For example, in response to 2008 crisis, a significant downturn in the European market by 11% was encountered; in response to the downturn, Germany introduced several scraping schemes that helped in increasing the demand of cars (OECD 2009). 3)The Governmenthad significant policies to encourage the electro-mobility initiatives and had introduced a â€Å"national electro-mobility development program† with more than 500 million euro investment (Germany Trade & Invest 2013). 4) The Government has policies to invest in new technologies and committed to spending EUR 70 billion on research and development on annual basis. Germany is the

Merit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Merit - Essay Example uous are rewarded and the vicious punished in proportion to their relative deserts† is- those who do good deeds are always rewarded while those who perform evil or bad actions are always punished. These actions are towards the attributes with which every individual is born. It also signifies the extent of goodness or evilness of the action that was performed and this is going to decide the merit or desert of the act (Pojman, 1999). In terms of merits the statement given by Pojman holds true in the sense that it promotes people to perform good or rather their best to secure rewards. This act is going to culminate the entire world a place where people are going to procure their merits according to their actions. These actions are in terms of promoting good deeds to make a healthy and congenial atmosphere. In the judicial system, it is not always true that those who have performed virtues are going to be rewarded! At times judgments have gone in favor of the evil task performer. Such cases create a sense of insecurity in the minds of people and tremble their trust and faith from the judiciary system of the country. The statement given by Pojman does not imply that this is how it is; instead it says that is how it should be. The theory in circumstance pronounce that it is not possible to change the minds of people and change the attitude but we all can strive hard to make this world a better place to live where people will receive their merits in proportion to their acts. There are various examples where people receive merits not because they have achieved something but they have deceived others to achieve their targets. Some examples are discussed here: one of the biggest politicians Saddam Husain was very popular amongst the people of Iraq; people rewarded him and offered him their wealth and everything what so ever they could and crowned him as the strongest person in the country. But as there is a saying that power corrupts so he started taking all the

Paper converters Ltd Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Paper converters Ltd - Essay Example The relevant research should focus on the potential existence of cultural differences across the organization. These differences, if they are major, can set barriers to the growth of the organization. Current paper focuses on the post merger challenges of a British firm, Paper Converters Ltd. The firm was created after the merger of two firms that was based on different culture: a) in the first of these firms, Dyson Paper Ltd particular emphasis has been given on structure and control, b) in the second firm, Jones Sales Agents Ltd, team-working was rather valued. The implications of cultural differences for mergers are reviewed in this paper. ... report The report has been developed in order to provide to the leaders of Paper Converters Ltd a series of recommendations for managing effectively the post merger effects and for reduce risks in regard to their firm further expansion. At the same time, the report shows the value of culture for joint ventures both at national and international level. Background of company Paper Converters Ltd established in 1988, as a result of a merger between the following firms: Dyson Paper Ltd and Jones Sales Agents Ltd. From its established up to 1993, i.e. for about 5 years, the two firms had kept their independency, operating in their pre-merger offices: Dyson Paper Ltd in Corby and Jones Sales Agents Ltd in Stevenage. The need for increasing the level of their production led the two firms to integrate their operations. The firms’ leaders identified a building that could be used as the head office of Paper Converters Ltd. Shortly conflicts appeared in the workplace. Employees of each f irm had worked under different culture and could not understand or tolerate the behavior of their colleagues. The leaders of the two firms tried as possible to eliminate these conflicts but with no particular success. The culture-related challenges for Paper Converters Ltd were continued during the firm’s internationalization. Dyson and Jones, the leaders of the firm, thought that by expanding in a developing region, such as central Africa, would help their organization to increase its profitability. After entering Zambia the firm’s leaders had to face another problem: Zambian staff was reluctant to follow the organizational rules on a series of issues, such as ‘the authority of expenditure, the appointment of senior managers, the terms of approval of payments and so on’ (case study,

Midterm Learning Reflection Essay Example for Free

Midterm Learning Reflection Essay Introduction. You should print this out, although you may also use it as a template to type over. You will be writing two reflections this term: a midterm reflection and a final reflection. The final reflection is the one you want to have ultimately on your portfolio. Both your midterm and final learning reflections must be 700 to 1000 words, which is approximately two to three MLA-formatted pages. You can check your word count by going to Tools/Word Count on the menu bar. Style and Format. The writing style of the learning reflection is primarily expressive, but will also contain narrative elements. You do not need a Works Cited page unless you cite something. So, if, for example, you cite song lyrics, one of our texts, a poem, or even a work of art, then you need a Works Cited page. I’ve included one here to serve you for formatting purposes. File formats. We are going to be learning how to convert Word documents to pdf format so that they load more easily in a browser window. If you can, please practice with one or both of the following two methods, which are what I use (they are free). 1. Install a free pdf converter. These are not truly â€Å"free† in that they either force you to look at some advertising or they add a line on each page advertising the manufacturer of the software. I don’t have a problem with either of these and gladly suffer through the free advertising every time I convert a file to pdf, which I do all the time. The one I use to create all the pdf files for my classes is at http://www.pdf995.com/download.html. Download both the Pdf995 Printer Driver and the Free Converter (they are both free; they are required to work together, but for some reason, they are two separate downloads). After you go through the download and installation process, every time you want to create a pdf file from Word, all you need to do is select File/Print and then chose PDF995, which will show up as a â€Å"printer.† When you initiate this process of creating a pdf file, you will be prompted for a place to save the file, as well as a file name. Be careful to save the file to your H: drive or, if to your C: drive, to ftp (transfer) it over to your H: drive later. You will notice that some advertisements come up as the conversion process occurs. That’s the â€Å"price† you pay for the free conversion software. 2. The other pdf-conversion method I like is to use the free OpenOffice word processing software. This software should be in our labs. You can also download it for free on your own computer, from http://www.openoffice.org/. This is basically an open-source version of Microsoft Office. Once you’ve installed it (it’s large and takes a while to install), you can open any Word document with the OpenOffice word processing program (Open Document). Some of the original Word formatting may be lost – especially the header information with your last name and page number. You will need to add that back in; be sure you do it correctly. When you’re satisfied with the format, there is a little pdf icon on the toolbar that you can click, and that will automatically convert the document to pdf format. Learning Reflection Content. What should you discuss in your reflection? In general, you discuss what you’ve learned, what you’ve done especially well, what you’ve enjoyed – and the challenges you’ve encountered and how you might make changes in the future. Here are some suggestions for what to write about: †¢ Your experience transitioning from high school (or wherever you were previously) to a freshman in college, focusing on how you have grown as an individual and an independent student. †¢ Your experience in this particular course – your year-long freshman inquiry. In this regard, you should probably focus on the University Studies goals and the ways in which you have grown and developed with respect to those goals. I would expect that other courses have also contributed to the goal areas, so you might want to highlight any that have been particularly useful in that regard. †¢ Other experiences as a student here at Portland State. Portland State University’s mission is â€Å"Let Knowledge Serve the City,† which reflects the fact that we are an urban university. What have you learned with respect to community, diversity, and the connection between a learning community (the university) and the city in which it is located? Keep in mind that you may have acquired valuable experiences outside of the classroom, but still connected to your identity as a student. o Perhaps you have learned important lessons about discipline and time management as a student athlete, which may serve you well when you enter the workforce. o Maybe your involvement in activities with other students – such as taking dance classes or playing in the band or spending hours in an art studio or toughing out chemistry and physics labs – has improved your personal skills and brought to light new areas of interest, which you’ve pursued in your free time. o Or perhaps you’ve found out that you are a loner, that you haven’t connected very well with a lot of the people in your classes. As you reflect on this (or any other conclusions that some – maybe you – might consider, well, depressing), think of this is an opportunity to think of ways to make some changes in the future. †¢ A reflection, in other words, should include a self-assessment element as well as thinking along the lines of â€Å"What could I do better or differently in the future?† Consider the challenges you’ve faced, how you’ve overcome them, or how you’d like to overcome them in the future. Conclusion. Your reflection should end in a way that gives the reader the sense that you are closing up a chapter in your life and ready to move on, with some ideas in mind of what you might do differently. My suggestion is that you do not spend a lot of time critiquing the world around you; after all, you can’t change that very much. Confine your reflection to you and what you have learned and experienced. Dwelling on what you don’t like about a given course or program is not a reflection about you, but about something else. Works Cited Eakin, Paul John. How Our Lives Become Stories: Making Selves. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, 1999. Fiske, John. â€Å"Popular Culture.† Critical Terms for Literary Study. Ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. 321 335. Harrison, Claire. â€Å"Hypertext Links: Whither Thou Goest, and Why.† First Monday. 7 Oct. 2002. 10 Feb. 2004 .

Post-insertion Catheter Care Audit

Post-insertion Catheter Care Audit Portfolio Activity 1 Permissions and ethics considerations This audit is a part of quality assurance (QA) that aim is to assess the adequacy of existing practice about the post-insertion catheter care against the standards, in order to minimize the central venous catheter related infections (CVCRIs) in a medical ward. This QA activity will possesses a negligible risk (NHMRC 2015) because the data will be analyzed for the purpose of maintaining standards and data will not be gather beyond that which is collected routinely from the participants (NHMRC 2014). That includes assessing nurses’ practice about the central venous catheter (CVC), its dressing skills, and patient’s CVC condition. Therefore, this audit will own more benefits than harm and will not require human research ethical committee (HREC) permission (NHMRC 2014). However, permission will be obtained from non-HREC. Informed consent: The opt-out approach will be used to recruit the participants into this audit, where the general information about this audit will be shared to all participants and their involvement. Those participants who are not willing to participate will notify the auditor; otherwise their participation is presumed (NHMRC 2015a). This audit information will be posted on the unit notice board a week before the actual audit starts. The poster will only contain the general information about the infection control audit and will not specify, which infection control policy is going to assess. The reason for not disclosed all the information to participant is to obtain the true data of staff practice about the CVC, because if participants get familiar with the audit aim, they will intentional started to behave differently (NHMRC 2015a). Moreover, before starting of the each shift, auditors will notify participants that those nurses, who are going to perform CVC dressing skills, will accompany auditors. But auditors will not permit participants’ to know what aspect of dressing skills will be assessed. However, once audit will finish, its aim and method will be shared and posted on the unit notice board. The data about the condition of CVC and nurses ‘dressing skills will be obtained by assessing the patients’ CVC site and nurses’ practice about the CVC dressing on patients. Thus, auditor will also take the verbal consent from the patients. Patients’ who are highly dependent on medical care or not capable of making decision, consent should be sought from participant’s guardian (NHMRC 2015b). Privacy and confidentiality: Participants’ confidentiality will be maintained (HREC 2008). The collected data will not contain any personal identifying information about participants. Collected data will be shared, once it get analyzed without disclosing the participants’ name to staff, head nurse, clinical nurse instructor, manager, director of nursing services and infection control committee (ICC) in order to develop the action plan based on identified needs. While assessing the patient CVC site and nurse’s practice about the CVC dressing, auditor will ensure patient privacy (HREC 2008). Moreover, to maintain the patient privacy, two auditors will be selected from the ICC, from which one would be male and other would be female. Female auditor will assess the female patient CVC site and same goes with male auditor. Infection Control Committee (ICC): Permission will be obtained from the ICC because they have following responsibilities: to manage infection control programs; to monitor hospital acquire infections through frequent audits; to facilitate in continuing education and ongoing training programs for HCWs to prevent and control all aspect of infections. Moreover, ethical issues about this audit will be discussed and modified after ICC feedback. Nursing Director and Manager: Permission will be obtained from nursing director and manager because they are responsible for safety and quality of their hospital; staffing; employee satisfaction; consumer satisfaction; and budgeting. Head Nurse (HN): Permission will be taken from the unit HN because they have a responsibility to manage their unit; to assure the quality care to all patients. Moreover, HN assists and conducts education and training programs for their unit staff. Portfolio Activity 2: Barriers and Facilitators: Impact on clinical practice change Elements of practice that assist my project: The element that will assist my project are the dominant organization culture leaders that includes the nursing directors, manager and ICC have significant impact on the ability of head nurse and clinical nurse instructor (CNI) to bring about the changes in nursing practice (Helfrich et al. 201). ICC will be involved in this audit as a stakeholder (ECDC 2013), facilitator to bring changes on staff practice and sustainability of that project. Because they are: Expert in infection control field. Responsible to develop, revise and implement the infection control policies based on standard guidelines. Conducting audits to evaluate the practice and performance of health care workers with standards and participate in those activities that improve compliance by monitoring parameters with regard to process or outcome. Identifying barriers to adherence with policy and procedure, by involving health care workers. Facilitate clinical care organization to implement infection control guideline, e.g. through proper training of employees about the infection control and prevention. Unit HN and Clinical Nurse Instructor (CNI) will be involved during the process of change management and sustainability of that project because both are responsible to regularly conduct the unit rounds. During the unit rounds, they will assess the staff performance and practice about the CVC on regular basis; reinforce staff to follow the ICC guidelines; and conduct the training session for their staff based on identifying needs particularly about the CVC. Elements that become a barrier for my project: Jeffery Pickler (2014) have identified the following barriers to become non-compliance with CVC guideline could be the cognitive and contextual factors. Cognitive barriers: Nurses are working with the many competing priorities of patient needs that lead them to prioritize their activities. Therefore, they are skipping those activities which they considered least important. Nurses are not following the guidelines when they do not see evidence of harm; understand the rational of policy’s; and want to waste the resources. Lack of knowledge and forgetfulness about the policy. Nurses do not wash their hands frequently, when they are continuously using patient’s CVC site. Contextual barriers: The organization is placing an importance to such activities that staff consider least valuable. These priorities includes aspect of documentation (staff feels that they are documenting more than providing care), frequent changes in practice, and lack of training. Shortage of staff, resulting in taken shorts cuts. Unavailability and inaccessibility of supplies and equipments. Strategies that assist staff and sustain to change their practice: Jeffery Pickler (2014) have mentioned some strategies that assist staff to change their practice are as follows: Commonly supplies and equipment should be readily available. Training and education about the infection control policy should be offered to all staff. User-friendly documentation system should be made. Sanitizer should be available on patient’s bedside. Staffing should be adequate. Other strategies stated by SA Health (2012a) SA Health (2012b) could be: Surveillance and auditing programs should be frequently performed by ICC. Ongoing feedback or appraisal should be given to staff to improve their practice. Ensure that online infection control policy should be accessible to all the staff or posted on the notice board. Encourage staff to use incident reporting system to notify any breeches in infection control practice. Elect the infection control nurses (ICN) from each shift that will be responsible to monitor the infection control practices in their own groups. So in this way, unit staff will start taken the responsibility to prevent and control the rate of infections from their units (Kitson Straus 2013). To conclude, this audit will only achieve its aims and significant outcome, when organization will understand the staff barriers and take some actions against those barriers, which staffs are facing at interpersonal, intrapersonal and organizational level, results in sustainability of this project. References: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) 2013, Core competencies for infection control and hospital hygiene professionals in the European Union, Stockholm, ECDC. Helfrich, CD, Yu-Fang, L, Sharp, ND, Sales, AE, 2009, ‘Organizational readiness to change assessment (ORCA): Development of an instrument based on the Promoting Action on research in health services (PARIHS) framework’, Implementation Science, vol. 4, no. 1. Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) 2008, Quality Assurance Guideline, viewed on 27 May 2015, http://www.newcastle.edu.au/research-and-innovation/resources/human-ethics/policies-and-guidelines?a=28875> Jeffery, AD, Pickler, RH 2014,’ Barriers to Nurses’ Adherence to Central Venous Catheter Guidelines’, The Journal of Nursing Administration, vol. 44, no. 7/8, pp. 429-435. National Health and Medical Research Council 2014, Ethical Considerations in Quality Assurance and Evaluation Activities, viewed 26 May 2015, https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/e111_ethical_considerations_in_quality_assurance_140326.pdf> National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2015, Chapter 2.1 Risk and Benefits, viewed 22 May 2015, http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-2-1-risk-and-benefit> National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2015a, Chapter 2.3: Qualifying or waiving conditions for consent, viewed 23 May 2015, http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/national-statement-ethical-conduct-human-research-2007-updated-december-2013/chapter-2-3-qualif> National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2015b, Chapter 4.4: People highly dependent on medical care who may be unable to give consent, viewed 23 May 2015, http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-4-4-people-highly-dependent-medical-care-who-may-be-unable-give-consent> South Australia Health 2012a, Healthcare Associated Infection (HAI) Action Plan 2012 – 2014, viewed 23 May 2015, http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/7ec93b004d4617539bc8dbf08cd2a4a7/Clinical+Directive_HAI+Action+Plan+2012-2014_Oct2012.pdf?MOD=AJPERESCACHEID=7ec93b004d4617539bc8dbf08cd2a4a7> South Australia Health 2012b, Health care associated infection prevention: Strategic Framework, viewed 23 May 2015, http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/fa5710804d461a0f9c0adff08cd2a4a7/Clinical+Directive_HAI+Strategic+Framework_Oct2012.pdf?MOD=AJPERESCACHEID=fa5710804d461a0f9c0adff08cd2a4a7>

Comparative Coverage of Women Issues in Elite Press

Comparative Coverage of Women Issues in Elite Press Comparative Coverage of women Issues in Elite Press of Pakistan, India Bangladesh Key Words: Mass Media, Print Media, portrayal, Women, Issues, treatment, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Elite Press, Visual, Textual, Analysis Introduction We are living in the twenty-first century and it is a heart-throbbing fact that still most of the sections of our society do not realize the importance of women in the socio-economic fabric. It would be deplorable if the status and the role of women were not appropriately perceived, since women are a part of society and share work and responsibility. Therefore, it is indispensable to upgrade the depiction of women and to strengthen the informational role of the media. Butt Mourion (1996) says that media are one of the modern ways to maintain and promote ideology and to relate it to the national needs, but also adds that to do this promotion, a grand number of projects and actions are required constantly by the state and the people as well. Media is playing vital role in dissemination of information, shaping and reshaping the perception and public views. The mass media have an essential role reporting wrong doing following up remedial action, mobilizing public opinion, brining about social change and highlighting positive developments. In fact, media and women issues coverage important topic in every era. The study is focused to analyze the visual and textual presentation of the women related news regarding social, economical and political issues in the elite press of major countries of South Asia which includes Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. The study is important because before partition of the subcontinent these three countries enjoyed the status of united India. So these countries are having similar roots sharing common norms, values and society. In this study researcher is going to analyze the women issues in major newspapers of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh which include topics of news stories, tone of covered news, location of news stories in newspaper and amount of space is given to news. Through these aspects researcher will analyze whether the print media portrayal women image positive, negative or neutrally Media The life styles, socialization patterns, participation levels, cultural boundaries, political maneuverings, religious manifestations, educational standards, social hierarchy, and images of society these all sectors that influence by the media content (Sharma, 2005). The media is a vehicle used to inform as well as entertain the public. The media is a carrier of information, ideas, thoughts and opinions. It is a powerful force in influencing people perceptions on a variety of issues. Print media is oldest medium that educate, inform and entertain the people. In modern society is mass media responsible for construction and consumption of social knowledge and their meanings that use people make a sense abut world and act as social reality accordingly. Print media plays an important role in influencing public opinions and setting agenda for what is constructed as news. The print media which include newspapers, periodicals, newsletters and other channels are relied upon by the people as c redible source of information, education and entertainment. The print media are known for fearless criticism and service. The print media or newspaper is consists of current affairs news, articles, features, advertising. Newspaper normally publishes stories on local, national and international politics issues, entertainment, society, business, technology, education, agriculture, sports etc. Also editorials, columns and letter to editors on current issues publish in newspaper on particular pages. Print media started in these three countries with the Independence Day but some news papers were running before the partition such as Dawn, Nawa I Waqt and Jang (Pakistan) The Hindustan Times, The Times of India and Dainik Jagran (India) and The Daily Star. Women Women are an integral part of our society, and cannot be ignored due to less power and authority. They are created using the need for men and men, presenting them with a companion in the course of life. Although women are significantly in all areas of life, the long list of people in the treatment seems to be never ending. There is no denying the fact that in todays society, where women are still mostly male, is dominated by pine from the inferior place to put side-by-side with men because of social and stick are typically held social values. In fact, womens position in any of the countries varies according to the categories, regions, and rural and urban distribution unequal socio-economic development and the impact of tribal, feudal, and capitalist social formations on womens lives. Today Pakistani women have a better position than most of other Muslim women. However, on an average, the womens situation vis-Ã  -vis men are one of systemicgender subordination. However, awareness among Pakistani women to expand the educational opportunities increased from past few years. According to the United Nations development index, Pakistani women are better in gender equality, as women in India and Bangladesh. However women condition in India is worst as compared to other development countries majority of Indian population consist of female. Today average female life expectancy today in India in contrast to many others countries is below the standard line (Nautiyal Dabral, 2012). Majority of women deprived the basic facility of life such as food, health and education in India and also socially women life in India very terrible. Indian society gives the more dominancy and importance to male in any walk of life as well as male social development. The status of women in Bangladesh is defined as an ongoing gender battle, the prevailing political tide, who favors restricting the rights of women in the Islamic patriarchal patterns, and activism. The Bangladesh socio-cultural environment provides comprehensive gender inequity so that girls and women face many obstacles in their development. The girls are often considered the financial burden on the family, and since birth, they receive less investment in health, health care and education (UNICEF, 2007). In Bangladesh, women have made huge gains since the country gained independence in 1971. In the past four decades have seen increased political influence for women, better employment prospects, improving training and new laws protect their rights. Many of the women working in the States and other key positions but in issues like family violence, acid burning and rape are still persist. Media and Women The media portrayal both positive as well as negative issues of women as well as a powerful mechanism. Although the media has played an important role in highlighting womens issues, it has also had negative impact, in terms of perpetrating violence against women through pornography and images of women as a female body that can be bought and sold. (Sharma, 2005) the trend is increasing in media to represent women as victims are more alarming. Media reflects in its content the pattern of value in any society. According to (Sharma, 2005) for the purpose of promoting and disseminating information media play an important role and also it is main role in development of women in social and economic sectors. The way subjects dealing with women are treated indicated to a great extent the prevailing attitude of the society towards women. Everywhere the potential exists for the media to make a far greater contribution to the advancement of women. More women are involved in careers in the commun ications sector, but few have attained positions at the decision-making level or serve on governing boards and bodies that influence media policy. Womens appearance in sensational news stories such as glamour, sex, domestic violence and other forms of violence are still prominent (Nautiyal Dabral, 2012). Portrayal of women in the media is mostly unfair and imbalanced. They are under-represented which falsely implies that men are the cultural standard and women’s role in the social life is unimportant or negligible. Women are portrayed stereotypically that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender. Their presentation in the media does not conform to their real role in the society. According to Patel (1995) the mainstream media like print more highlight the women physical body image side by side along stereotyped sexist images and the back page pin ups. She observed that one of the reasons for projection of patriarchal image of the society is disproportionate number of men in the key positions in media. As to the qualitative aspect of portrayal of women in the media that they are generally portrayed as unthinking, dependent and submissive beings with reproduction as their fundamental role. Women are either portrayed as ideal or deviant. Their real life feelings and b ehaviors are rarely depicted on screen. She is shown more in fantasy roles than her real life. Common woman in the society finds it hard to relate herself to the depiction of females in the media. The negative portrayal of women in the media not only does not correspond with the reality but also leads to promote unhealthy and harmful traits among the public. Statement of the Problem Press is prognostic the women in a totally immoral way according to society values in news. While these types of news became the sources of spreading obscenity, western style, trends and personalities are being highlighted quite indecently. The news about scandals, rapes, pregnancy, fashion shows, show-biz and private matters of wife and husband are being over played instead of the women development and social progress. The photographs related to these news are nude, and below the standards of morality. Newspapers are more focusing the sexual crimes are being highlighted in which women are badly humiliated. In fact, film stars and celebrities’ news are being accommodated as commodities. Hypothesis Whether or not Pakistani, Indian and Bangladesh press portray women as commodities? Whether or not Pakistani, Indian and Bangladesh press treating women issues in real sense and focusing social development? Whether or not Pakistani, Indian and Bangladesh press portray women issues as sensational news? Objectives of the Study The objectives of this research, which can be specified on the spot to find the answer the following questions as below: To analyze representation of women in selected newspaper of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. To examine the quality of the women related news published in selected newspapers. To find out the selected issues related to women that are discussed subject matter or not. To understand whether or not women related news are treated as traditional approach in selected newspapers. To check the nature/style of news related to women issues in selected newspapers. To understand print media reporting patterns are favorable/ unfavorable towards women Printmediaportraystereotypicalimageof womeninnewsstories Nautiyal Dabral (2012) The journals are mostly qualified for modern society and could be said to be positively harmful to the development of women as conscious individuals aware of themselves and aware of the society around them. If a woman wins a beauty contest, magazines or newspapers in particular give much importance to the news and even take her photographs on cover page but, at the same time if a woman gets the Nobel Prize she gets limited coverage. Here the difference of judgment in womens issues is quite marked in our media. Similarly the daily newspapers rarely put womens news and their development. Rather they prefer reporting on rape, atrocities, crime, sexual harassment and abuse of women prominently in their columns. UNICEF, State of the World’s Children: The Double Dividend of Gender Equality, 2007 Mariam S. Pal (2000).Women in Pakistan: Country Briefing Paper. Asian Development Bank.ISBN971-561-297-0. Pakistan: Status of Women the Womens Movement. Womenshistory.about.com. 28 July 2001. Retrieved 2012-01-24. Women Education in Pakistan. Pakcitizen.com. 17 December 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-24. http://hdrstats.undp.org/images/explanations/pak.pdf Jump up^http://tribune.com.pk/story/521279/pakistan-better-than-india-on-undp-gender-inequality-index/

Joseph Bediers The Romance of Tristan and Iseult and Jean Cocteau’s Et

The Romance of Tristan and Iseult, by Joseph Bà ©dier, and Jean Cocteau’s 1943 cinematic adaptation of the epic love story Eternal Return, both portray the love between Tristan and Iseult, and Patrice and Natalie as an agonizing cancer that overpowers the lovers after they consume the love potion. But the differences of how and when the love potion is administered, and the lovers’ feelings for each other before the potion is drunk, reveal different depictions of the love potion between the novel and the film. The first difference between the film and the novel is when the two lovers drink the love potion. In the book, they drink the love potion when they are still on the boat and have â€Å"dropped anchor by an island† (Bà ©dier, 42). Here Iseult has not met King Mark. But in the film, Natalie and Patrice drink the love potion after Natalie has been introduced to Uncle Mark. In the first instance, they both have a chance to elope, and no one would be the wiser. They can easily live a life of comfort and full of love with each other, but Tristan chooses to hand over the woman he loves to his Uncle, and suffer for his love. In the film, Natalie and Patrice are not given this option, and therefore do not have a chance to escape their faith. Also in the book, an unknowing maid gives the love potion to the lovers. She believes that she is just giving them wine. This signifies the fact that no one intentionally wished for them to suffer, but faith led them to it. But i n the film, Achille puts the love potion in their drinks on the pretext of murdering them with poison. In the film the fact that the love potion is labeled poison, foreshadows the pain and sorrow the two lovers will face, because poison leads to a slo... ...g this news for the first time and is astounded and angry. Aunt Gertrude, though shrewd and unlikable, also realizes the attraction between Patrice and Natalie, and tells Patrice that he is marrying the girl he loves to his Uncle. Her awareness on this subject may be rooted in her hate for Patrice and her desire to destroy him because her son can never be as loved as Patrice, but that does not alter the fact that she feels and notices the love between Patrice and Natalie. The difference in the film and the novel alter the depiction of the love affair between Tristan and Iseult and Patrice and Natalie. While the novel portrays Tristan and Iseult as causing the suffering they endure because of their love, the film makes Patrice and Natalie the victims of faith and love. Works Cited Bedier, Joseph. The Romance of Tristan and Iseult. New York, 1994

Michelangelo Buonarroti Essay -- essays research papers fc

Michelangelo Buonarroti   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in 1475. He was born in a small town called Caprese, in Tuscany, Italy. Michelangelo was one of the most famous artists of the Italian Renaissance. According to Charles de Tolnay Michelangelo's three greatest works of his later life, were the Tomb of Pope Julius II, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and the Medici Chapel(37).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo's specialty was painting the human body unclothed. In order to learn to paint the human body so well he would dissect human corpses. His artistic talents were noticed at a very early age. Michelangelo went to study with Domenico Ghirlandago, who taught him about painting. He then went on to work with Donatello to learn about sculpture. Between the years of 1490-1492 Michelangelo lived in the house of Lorenzo de' Medici and was influenced by Neoplatonic thought. Some of Michelangelo's early painting showed the influence of Giotto and Masaccio. Also many of his early sculptures show the influence of Donatello (Columbia University Press) .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo's artistic career can be divided into two periods. In the early period he focused on realism. During this early period Michelangelo's works included the â€Å"Pieta† and the â€Å"David.† At the age of 24 he completed a statue called the â€Å"Pieta,† showing the dead Jesus Christ in his mother's arms. In 1501 Michelangelo returned to Florence, Italy to sculpt the famous nude sculpture called the â€Å"David.† The â€Å"David† measures 18 feet tall, and is so massive that it took 40 men to move it from Michelangelo's workshop(World Book 5016)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second period of Michelangelo's career was based upon his imagination. In 1505 Michelangelo was summoned by Pope Julius II to fabricate his tomb. Michelangelo was so excited about making the tomb for the Pope that he spent many months looking for the perfect piece of marble to make the tomb. A short time after starting the tomb Pope Julius II selected Michelangelo to decorate the Sistine Chapel ceiling.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Sistine Chapel is in the palace of The Vatican in Rome. The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV in 1473. The Sistine Chapel ceiling took over four years to complete, 1508-1512. Michelangelo was able to accomplish this enormous job in such a short amou... ...ecause of Michelangelo's unhappiness with the Pope it caused him not to express his true feelings to the Pope. This made Michelangelo more upset and frustrated. Michelangelo's relationship with the Pope became a vicious cycle(Liebert 152).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo was one of the most recognized artists of the Italian Renaissance. He was a great sculptor, painter, writer, and poet. He was a true Renaissance man. One of his best works was the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Even though he was unhappy with the outcome of the Sistine Chapel ceiling, the ceiling turned out to be magnificent List Of Works Cited De Tolnay, Charles. The Art and Thought of Michelangelo. New York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Random House, 1964 Janson, H.W. History of Art. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966. Liebert, Robert S MD. Michelangelo, A Psychoanalytic Study of His Life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and Images. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983. â€Å"Michelangelo.† Concise Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Online.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Columbia University Press, 1994. â€Å"Michelangelo.† The World Book Encyclopedia. 1959. Vol. XI.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pages 5015-5016.

Essay --

Applying Information Security and SDLC to Business BIS320 June 4, 2012 â€Æ' Introduction Books-A-Million is a good representative business which faces numerous IT security challenges and serves thousands of customers annually from local locations as well as through internet sales. Books-A-Million has seen declining sales in recent years while competitor Amazon.com has seen growth through extremely strong internet sales as well as innovative applications which recommend selections to customers. Our team has made recommendations to establish a new technology application similar to Amazon’s offering to increase Books-A-Million competitiveness and regain lost sales. Our team has also reviewed multiple security risks and developed a preventive plan as well as disaster recovery plan in the event of a security break or other disaster. Books-A-Million In 1917 starting out as a street corner newsstand in Florence, Alabama Books-A-Million (BAM) was founded. The corporate offices are now based in Birmingham Alabama. Books-A-Million Inc. has since grown into the nation’s 3rd largest book retailing chain (behind Amazon and Barnes and Noble). The company presently has 257 stores located in 31 states, including the District of Columbia. BAM 2012 Annual Report confirms â€Å"of the 257 stores, 204 are superstores that operate under the names Book-A-Million (BAM), Books & Co. and 2nd & Charles, and 53 are traditional stores that operate under the Bookland and Books-a-Million name†. In addition to retail stores the organization comprises of an e-commerce subsidiary operating as booksamillion.com and American Wholesale Book Company (a book wholesale and distribution division). The company’s mission statement â€Å"books are just the beginning† ... ...eview (2012) Books-A-Million Review, Retrieved from: http://www.givemeareview.com/online-book-stores/BooksAMillion.html Market Watch, The Wall Street Journal (2012) Annual Financials for Books-A-Million Inc.Retrieved from: http://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/bamm/financials SearchSoftwarequality, 2009 retrieved from www.searchsoftwarequality.com ScienceDaily, 2010 retrieved from http://searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com/definition/systems-development-life-cycle The Free Library, Business Wire (2002) Books-A-Million to Install Wincor Nixdorf's BEETLE Point-of-Sale Systems At 204 Stores. Retrieved from: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Books-A-Million+to+Install+Wincor+Nixdorf%27s+BEETLE+Point-of-Sale...-a081772964 UAB. Culverhouse College of Commerce (2012). Capstone Team Projects. http://cba.ua.edu/mis/undergraduate/capstone-experience/projects

Do You Exist Because You Think, or Do You Think Because You Exist, or Neither? Essay

In order to consider â€Å"I exist because I think† or †I think because I exist†, I would define the â€Å"I exist because I think† as â€Å"I think† is the cause of â€Å"I exist†. This implies â€Å"I think† appear before â€Å"I exist† and cause â€Å"I exist† to happen. In the other side, â€Å"I think because I exist† would be â€Å"I exist† is the cause of â€Å"I think†. This implies â€Å"I exist† appear before â€Å"I think† and cause â€Å"I think† to happen. In terms of logic, I would say â€Å"I think because I exist â€Å" is more appropriate. It is because I must exist first, therefore I can think of my existence. Things about me or myself are impossible to happen before my existence and cause my existence. In the following paper, I would like to explain why â€Å"I exist because I think† is false and explain â€Å"I think because I exist† is true. Let me first explain why ‘I exist because I think’ is false. If ‘I exist because I think’ is true, every time when I think I exist and when I do not think, I do not exist. As I mentioned, â€Å"Think† seems to be the cause of my existence in this case. How can my thinking exist before my existence and cause my existence. Therefore, I must exist first, then I can think about â€Å"I exist† or not. In fact, every minute whatever I am conscious or not, I am existing in this world, If my body physically is existing. For example, a person whose body functionally works but loss his conscious. He is still alive but he cannot think, we cannot say he is inexistent, because he is not dead. In other word, I can exist without â€Å"I think†, but â€Å"I think† cannot be without I exist. Furthermore, as Descartes said â€Å"I think, therefore I am† to prove the indubitable truth of self-existence. He suggested that every time when we doubt that â€Å"I† exist or not, we can absolute certain that â€Å"I† am existing by this act. Then he said that the evil genius could not deceive us â€Å"I exist† because before the evil genius’s deception, â€Å"I† must exist first, then I can be deceived in some way by the evil genius. So â€Å"I exist† is indubitable truth. Similarly, to say â€Å"I think because I exist† is true, The first criterion is I ust exist first. Therefore, I can think about my existence. So â€Å"I think† must base on â€Å"I exist†. In contrast, if â€Å"I exist† is based on â€Å"I think†, this is impossible that â€Å"I think† appear before â€Å"I exist†. How can my mind and thinking exist dependently? Although some scientists may argue that brain wave w hat we call ghosts can exist after life, they may be the other forms of human thought â€Å"I think† appearing without â€Å"I exist†. However, who have seen ghost in this world? At least until today no one can prove ghosts exist in this world. So â€Å"I think† is not the cause that I can exist. However, â€Å"I exist† is the cause of I can think. To conclude, â€Å"I think† cannot exist without â€Å"I exist†. It should be â€Å"I exist† first then â€Å"I think† â€Å"I exist†. As the following diagram shows: If it is â€Å"I exist because I think†, it would be missing I exist in the first place, as below diagram shows: Nothing can exist before itself, so before I think, I must exist. In other word, â€Å"I exist† does not dependent on â€Å"I think†, but â€Å"I think† do dependent on â€Å"I exist†. Therefore, â€Å"I think because I exist† is true.

Logic: American Association of State Colleges and Universities and Subsequent Rights Restrictions

Sequenced. Precise. Elegant. Clear. Hurleys A Concise incoming to reproducible systemal systemal system, 11th Edition How to bed an Origami Crane Make your own origami exsert exploitation these informations and the perforated sheet of paper accommodate in your countersign. 1. Start with a straightforwardly piece of paper, colo exit nerve up. sheepcote in half and open. thereof excavate in half the nigh separate way. 2. lead on the paper over to the white side. raft the paper in half, crease healthy and open, and then slew again in the otherwise(a) direction. 3. use the creases you shake up made, land the shed light on 3 corners of the manakin bulge to the bottom corner.Flat ecstasy model. The look-alikeic red crane on the cover of this parvenu magnetic variation of Hurleys, A Concise Introduction to system of system of logic symbolizes the qualities that see it the nearly successful logic text on the market. We capture elect origami to symboli ze this texts elaborated sequencing, precision, elegance, and clarity. About the Cover 4. lot top triangular flaps into the center and unfold. 5. fiddleclude top of model downwards, crease comfortably and unfold. 6. Open the uppermost flap of the model, manner of speaking it upwards and pressing the sides of the model inward at the same epoch. Flatten down, creasing well.Couple an icon steeped in tradition with a clean, recent design, and you get out quickly get a smell of the qualities that make this sensitive adaptation of Hurley the best yet. Along with instructions, each spic-and-span text includes a sheet of red paper so that you piece of tail stick the cover to life. This influence serves as a metaphor for the serve well of encyclopedism logic. It is ch all in allenging, petitions expend, tho heap be fun. Ideas for other slipway to create your own origami undersurface be prime at www. origami-resource-center. com. 7. braid model over and repeat Step s 4-6 on the other side. . keep mum top flaps into the center. 9. Repeat on other side. 10. Fold both legs of 11. inner(a) Reverse Fold the legs model up, crease along the creases genuinely well, then you provided made. unfold. Finished Crane. 12. Inside Reverse Fold unitary side to make a head, then fold down the wings. Source www. origami-fun. com copy cover 2010 Cengage acquirement. on the completely Rights Reserved. whitethorn non be copied, s send awayned, or duplicated, in firm or in subtract. holdable to electronic castigates, round trey troupe core whitethorn be stamp down from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). column fall over has deemed that each(prenominal) conquer subject ara does non materially repair the boilersuit cultivation experience. Cengage acquirement militia the indemnify to implant aside supererogatory gist at every m if sequent repairs restrictions dominate it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO system of l ogic copy correctly 2010 Cengage tuition. in all Rights Reserved. whitethorn non be copied, s toiletned, or duplicated, in upstanding or in naval division. referable to electronic decents, near lead nearly society nitty-gritty whitethorn be curb from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). editorial refresh has deemed that every smothered suffice does non materially allude the boilers suit teaching experience. Cengage expertness militia the up repair to mutilate special bailiwick at either sequence if accomp whatsoevering functions restrictions have it. secure 2010 Cengage knowledge. altogether Rights Reserved. whitethorn non be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in entirely or in part. payable to electronic rights, almost(prenominal)(prenominal) 3rd semipolitical ships comp both field whitethorn be hold from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). editorial polish up has deemed that all(prenominal) check study does non materially need the ge neral encyclopedism experience.Cengage acquire reserves the right to get rid of surplus bailiwick at whatever firearm if posterior rights restrictions engage it. A C O N C I S E I N T R O D U C T I O N TO system of logic ELEVENTH EDITION PATRICK J. HURLEY University of San Diego Australia brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United country United hypothesises right of first publication 2010 Cengage cultivation. on the social unit Rights Reserved. whitethorn non be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in hale or in part. delinquent to electronic rights, much or less triad ships comp few(prenominal)(prenominal) capacity may be inhibit from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). editorial critique has deemed that whatsoever hold in substanceed does non materially equal the general education experience. Cengage training reserves the right to invite out additive field at any(prenominal) succession if posterior rights restrictions invite it. This is an electronic adaptation of the shanghai schoolbook. out-of-pocket to electronic rights restrictions, whatsoever tercet base political party core may be subdue. pillar reappraisal has deemed that any subdue cloy does not materially print the boilers suit encyclopedism experience.The publisher reserves the right to adjourn theme from this entitle at any conviction if accompanying rights restrictions select it. For valuable information on pricing, previous mutants, changes to certain editions, and alternate formats, divert shout www. cengage. com/highered to search by ISBN, author, title, or keyword for materials in your beas of fire. procure 2010 Cengage education. each Rights Reserved. whitethorn not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. ascribable to electronic rights, rough triad party suffice may be stifled from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). pillar follow-up has deemed that any hold limit does not materially vi ew the boilers suit learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to contain additive marrow at any sequence if posterior rights restrictions bear it. A Concise Introduction to logic, El unconstipatedth Edition vomit uprick J. Hurley Publisher Clark Baxter fourth-year Sponsoring Editor Joann Kozyrev Development Editor Florence Kilgo admirer Editor Nathan Gamache editorial Assistant Michaela henry Media Editor Diane Akerman polarityeting autobus gradation T.Haynes Marketing Coordinator Josh Hendrick Marketing communication theory Manager Laura Localio Content Project Manager Alison Eigel Zade Senior Art Director Jennifer Wahi write Buyer Paula vang Production Service elmwood Street Publishing Services congenital designer Yvo Riezebos Cover designer Jeff execration of CMB Design Partners Cover get a line Courtesy of Getty Images Red origami crane on white table (image number 85592979) type stationter Integra Softw be Services Pvt. Ltd. 2012, devi l hundred8, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning completely RIGHTS RESERVED.No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or go ford in any form or by any message bright, electronic, or mechanical, including besides not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distri furtherion, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, move out as permitted under class 107 or 108 of the 1976 United pass ons secure Act, without the prior scripted permission of the publisher.For product information and engineering science assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, assent all requests online at www. cengage. com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to emailprotected com. Library of Congress view get along 2010924757 Student Edition ISBN-13 978-0-8400-3417-5 ISBN-10 0-8400-34 17-2 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a star succeedr of customized learning solutions with o? e locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your egressal anesthetic anaesthetic o? ce at international. cengage. com/ kingdom Cengage Learning products atomic number 18 re largessed in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your cable and learning solutions, visit www. cengage. com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our like online store www. cengagebrain. com. Printed in the United offers of the adduces 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 secure 2010 Cengage Learning. each Rights Reserved. whitethorn not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. due to electronic rights, more or less third party electrical capacity may be curb from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). editorial review has deemed that any curb center does not mater ially postulate the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove supererogatory content at any time if sequent rights restrictions conduct it. To All of the instructors, past and present, who have taught logic from this book. It is wrong endlessly, everywhere, and for any champion, to believe anything upon insufficient indicate. W. K. Clifford nada can be more all- measurable(a) than the art of positive debate match to true logic. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz procure 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. may not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, nearly third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially fall the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove excess content at any time if ensuant rights restrictions require it. Brief limit record xiii per cen tum IINFORMAL system of logic 1 2 3 raw material Concepts 1 spoken language Meaning and De? ition 78 Informal Fallacies 119 PART IIFORMAL logic 4 5 6 7 8 two-dimensional Propositions 197 mat Syllogisms 259 Propositional logic 310 natural deduction in Propositional Logic 380 pronounce Logic 442 PART IIIinducive LOGIC 9 10 11 12 13 14 simile and Legal and mora heelic debate 509 creator and Mills Methods 529 Probability 554 statistical teleph atomic number 53 circuit 571 theoretic/Scienti? c conclude 593 apprehension and bigotry 615 supplement Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises 655 Glossary/Index 697 vi copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.whitethorn not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially allude the overall le arning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additive content at any time if succeeding rights restrictions require it. contents Preface xiii PART I? INFORMAL LOGIC 1 Basic Concepts operation 1. 1 7 1 1 14 33 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 1. 2 Recognizing Arguments make 1. 2 25 1. 3 Deduction and Induction transaction 1. 40 1. 4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency 44 reckon 1. 4 53 1. 5 Argument Forms Proving in logicalness make 1. 5 63 57 1. 6 lengthy Arguments execution 1. 6 70 64 2 Language Meaning and De? nition 2. 1 Varieties of Meaning set 2. 1 83 78 78 88 2. 2 The Intension and Extension of Terms arrange 2. 2 92 2. 3 De? nitions and Their Purposes cause 2. 3 99 93 2. 4 De? nitional techniques utilization 2. 4 108 102 111 2. 5 Criteria for lexical De? nitions knead 2. 5 115 s level off secure 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic r ights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if ulterior rights restrictions require it. 3 Informal Fallacies 3. 1 Fallacies in General elaborate 3. 1 121 119 122 138 119 3. 2 Fallacies of Relevance physical exercise 3. 2 133 3. 3 Fallacies of Weak Induction coiffe 3. 3 149 3. 4 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Grammatical Analogy 156 EXERCISE 3. 4 170 . 5 Fallacies in Ordinary Language EXERCISE 3. 5 185 178 PART II? FORMAL LOGIC 4 Categorical Propositions 197 4. 1 The Comp angiotensin-converting enzyments of Categorical Propositions 197 EXERCISE 4. 1 200 4. 2 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution EXERCISE 4. 2 204 200 4. 3 Venn Diagrams and the Modern red-blooded of foe 205 EXERCISE 4. 3 216 4. 4 Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition EXE RCISE 4. 4 225 217 4. 5 The Traditional Squ be of Opposition EXERCISE 4. 5 234 227 4. 6 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Stand denominate 239 EXERCISE 4. 6 245 4. 7 Translating Ordinary Language evokements into Categorical Form 246 EXERCISE 4. 254 viii table of contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 5 Categorical Syllogisms 259 5. 1 Standard Form, Mood, and Figure 259 EXERCISE 5. 1 264 5. 2 Venn Diagrams EXERCISE 5. 277 266 280 288 292 5. 3 reins and Fallacies EXERCISE 5. 3 286 5. 4 Reducing the Number of Terms EXERCISE 5. 4 291 5. 5 Ordinary Language Argu ments EXERCISE 5. 5 294 5. 6 Enthymemes 295 EXERCISE 5. 6 297 5. 7 Sorites 301 EXERCISE 5. 7 304 6 Propositional Logic EXERCISE 6. 1 319 310 6. 1 Symbols and description 310 6. 2 Truth Functions EXERCISE 6. 2 332 323 6. 3 Truth Tables for Propositions 335 EXERCISE 6. 3 341 6. 4 Truth Tables for Arguments EXERCISE 6. 4 347 344 6. 5 Indirect Truth Tables 350 EXERCISE 6. 5 358 6. 6 Argument Forms and Fallacies EXERCISE 6. 6 371 360 confine ixCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 7 immanent Deduction in Propositional Logic 380 7. 1 Rules of Implication I 380 EXERCISE 7 . 1 386 7. 2 Rules of Implication II 391 EXERCISE 7. 396 7. 3 Rules of Replacement I 401 EXERCISE 7. 3 407 7. 4 Rules of Replacement II EXERCISE 7. 4 419 414 7. 5 qualified test copy EXERCISE 7. 5 430 427 7. 6 Indirect Proof EXERCISE 7. 6 436 432 438 7. 7 Proving Logical Truths EXERCISE 7. 7 440 8 Predicate Logic 442 8. 1 Symbols and Translation 442 EXERCISE 8. 1 449 8. 2 Using the Rules of Inference EXERCISE 8. 2 460 451 8. 3 Change of Quanti? er Rule EXERCISE 8. 3 467 464 468 8. 4 conditional and Indirect Proof EXERCISE 8. 4 472 8. 5 Proving In severeness EXERCISE 8. 5 479 474 481 8. 6 Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quanti? ers EXERCISE 8. 6 489 . 7 Identity 492 EXERCISE 8. 7 501 x Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Part III INDUCTIVE LOGIC 9 Analogy and Legal and honourable Reasoning 509 9. 1 Analogical Reasoning 9. Legal Reasoning 9. 3 Moral Reasoning EXERCISE 9 520 509 512 516 10 Causality and Mills Methods 10. 2 Mills Five Methods 531 10. 3 Mills Methods and Science EXERCISE 10 546 529 529 10. 1 Cause and infallible and Sufficient Conditions 540 11 Probability 554 11. 1 Theories of Probability 11. 2 The Probability coalescency EXERCISE 11 567 554 557 12 statistical Reasoning 571 12. 1 Evaluating Statistics 571 12. 2 Samples 572 576 12. 3 The Meaning of Average 12. 4 dispersion 578 12. 5 Graphs and Pictograms 12. 6 Percentages 586 EXERCISE 12 588 583 13 Hypothetical/Scienti? c Reasoning 593 13. The Hypothetical Method 593 13. 2 Hypothetical Reasoning Four causes from Science 596 Contents xi Copyright 2010 Cengage L earning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 13. 3 The Proof of Hypotheses EXERCISE 13 607 02 13. 4 The dubious Acceptance of Hypotheses 604 14 Science and Superstition 14. 2 Evidentiary Support 14. 3 Objectivity 14. 4 Integrity EXERCISE 14 615 615 14. 1 Distinguishing Between Science and Superstition 616 621 625 630 631 14. 5 Concluding Remarks Appendix Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests 644 Answers to Selected Exercises Glossary/Index 697 655 xii Contents Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Preface The most quick benefit derived from the study of logic is the skill needed to construct sound short letters of bingles own and to evaluate the lines of others. In accomplishing this goal, logic instills a sensitivity for the formal comp oneness and only(a)nt in language, a organic command of which is indispensable to clear, e? ective, and importationful communication.On a broader scale, by focusing maintenance on the requirement for resolves or licence to musical accompaniment our views, logic adds a organic falsifying against the prejudiced and uncivilized attitudes that peril the foundations of our democratic society. Finally, by means of its attention to discrepancy as a fatal ? aw in any theory or point of view, logic proves a useful doohickey in disclosing ill-conceived policies in the political sphere and, ultimately, in distinguishing the rational from the irrational, the flat coatable from the insane. This book is written with the aim of securing these bene? s. all(prenominal) Book Has a Story When I ? rst began teaching introductory logic numerous old age ago, I selected a text that was widely used and highly regarded. Yet, my educatees a expert deal had a hard time arrest it. The book tended to be overly boring and the main points were oftentimes lost amid a welter of detail. Also, I found that much of the books content was further peripherally related to the native conceits of logic. Using this book provided the happy and un judge reply that my students always came to class so they could construe me explain the textbook. entirely aft(prenominal) I weary of doing this, I decided to writ e a textbook of my own that would address the de? ciencies of the one I had been using. Speci? cally, my goal was to write a book in which the main points were always presented up front so students could not possibly miss them, the prose was clear and uncomplicated, and intemperance verbiage and peripheral subject calculate was avoided. To accomplish these and other related goals, I incorporated the pursuit pedagogical devices relevant and up-to-date examples were used extensively end-to-end the book. Key call were introduced in courageous face type and de? ed in the glossary/index. Central concepts were illustrated in graphic boxes. Numerous exercisestoday there are over 2,600were include to perfect student skills. legion(predicate) exercises were drawn from real-life sources such as textbooks, unexampledspapers, and magazines. Typically every third exercise was answered in the back of the book so students could check their work. xiii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapters were organized so that earlier ingredients provided the foundation for later ones. later on sections could be skipped by instructors opting to do so. fundamental rules and tables were printed on the inside covers for ready access. In its ? rst edition, the book was so well acquire that plans were quickly begun for a atomic number 42 edition.With the extent of that and later editions, the book grew to incorporate legion(predicate) new holds Venn diagrams for syllogisms were presented in a myth and more e? ective way using color to constitute t he relevant areas. parley exercises were include to depict the commission of fallacies in real life. Predicate logic was protracted to include relational predicates and identity. The Eminent Logicians feature was introduced to elevate the human element it presented the lives of historically prominent logicians. Truth Trees and full of life cerebration and Writing were written as supplements. Learning Logic, a multimedia political platform that includes an additional 2,000 exercises and that practically teaches the get over by itself, was include in the package. A series of videos relations with topics that students ? nd di? cult, including the concept of validity, indirect trueness tables, and natural deduction, were o? ered with the polish edition. I am convinced that with each accompanying edition the book has be get into a more e? ective teaching tool. I am as well convinced that the veritable, el even soth edition, is the best and most accurate one to date. par venue To This Edition Five new biographical vignettes of prominent logicians are introduced.The new logicians include Ruth Barcan Marcus, Alice Ambrose, Ada Byron (Countess of Lovelace), Willard Van Orman Quine, and Saul Kripke. Six new converse exercises are introduced to dish out a? rm the relevance of formal logic to real-life. They can be found in branchs 5. 6, 6. 4, 6. 6, 7. 3, 7. 4, and 8. 2. The end-of-chapter summaries now get on in bullet format to make them more useful for student review. some new and improved exercises and examples appear by and throughout the book. In Section 1. 4, the link amidst inductive reason out and the principle of the consonance of nature is explained.Cogent inductive short letters are those that parcel out with this principle, while weak ones violate it. much(prenominal) violations are always accompanied by an element of surprise. xiv Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The connection between the Boolean bandstand and the Aristotelian standpoint is explained more completely. The empiric fallacy as it occurs in prompt inferences is explained in greater detail. All inferences that pluck this fallacy have a universal joint enter and a particular completion. The signification of universal and particular are broad to cover dictations that are given as phony. A new exercise set is introduced in Section 4. 5 that involves test immediate inferences for soundness. An improved de? nition of the main mover of a combine argumentation is given. A new subsection is introduced in Section 6. 5 giving preliminary instruction on how to work backward from the fairness set of the simple mesmerisms to the rightfulness economic taxs of the operators. A new exercise set provides practice with this technique. Section 7. 1 has been rewritten, express the strategy of laborious to ? nd the shoemakers last in the set forth. Margin of error in Chapter 12 is now explained in harm of level of expectation. A more enlightening table illustrates this change. A complete list of all improvements is given at the start out of the instructors Manual. berth to the Student call up that you are interviewing for a job. The psyche crosswise the desk asks about your strengths, and you reply that you are energetic, enthusiastic, and unstrained to work long hours. Also, you are seminal and innovative, and you have life-threatening bearership skills. Then the interviewer asks about your flunkes. You hadnt anticipated this question, but aft(prenominal) a moments t hought you reply that your reason out skills have never been very acceptable. The interviewer quickly responds that this weakness could create big problems. Why is that? you ask. Because reasoning skills are internal to good judgment. And without good judgment your creativity pass on lead to projects that make no reek. Your leadership skills depart direct our other employees in circles. Your devotion leave alone undermine everything we have finish up until now. And your operative long hours will make things even worse. But go int you think there is some position in your company that is right for me? you ask. The interviewer thinks for a moment and then replies, We have a competitor on the other side of town. I hear they are hiring right now. Why dont you apply with them? The point of this little dialogue is that good reasoning skills are essential to doing anything right. The business person uses reasoning skills in writing a report or preparing a presentation the scie ntist uses them in intention an experiment or clinical trial, the division manager uses them in maximizing prole e? ciency, the lawyer uses them in piece an argument to a judge or jury. And thats where logic comes in. The chief champion-valued function of logic is to develop good reasoning skills. In fact, logic is so central that when the liberal arts computer program of studies was theorise ? fteen hundred years Preface v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ago, logic was selected as one of the original seven liberal arts. Logic extends to this day a cen tral component of a college or university education.From a more pragmatic angle, logic is important to earning a good score on any of the several tests required for access to graduate professional schoolsthe LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, and so on. Obviously, the designers of these tests avow that the ability to reason logically is a prerequisite to success in these ? elds. The concomitant in the back of the book charters taste questions and cues on answering them. Also, logic is a useful tool in relieving what has come to be called math anxiety. For whatever reason, incalculable students today are terri? ed of any form of reasoning that involves abstract symbols.If you give to be one of these students, you should ? nd it relatively easy to master the use of logical symbols, and your newly found comfort with these symbols will carry over into the other, more di? cult ? elds. To improve your performance in logic, I strongly urge you to take proficient advantage of a multimedia program c alled Learning Logic. This is an interactive tutorial that teaches the essentials of this textbook in a very user-friendly way. However, your figurer must be provide with loudspeakers or headphones, because the audio component is essential.Learning Logic is procurable both on CD and online at the Logic CourseMate site. If the CD version or a passcode for the website did not come with your textbook, it can be purchased separately through your campus bookstore if your instructor has say it. You can overly order it directly at www. cengagebrain. com. In addition to Learning Logic, an eBook and other quizzes and self-study material are getable on the Logic CourseMate site. Also available online through the Logic CourseMate site are design video lectures on key topics. The videos include pointers on how to work the pertinent exercises in the textbook.They cover topics such as the concept of validity, conversion, obversion, and contraposition, indirect truth tables, and natural de duction. If, as you work through the content of this book, you learn a subject that you have fuss understanding, one of these videos may solve the problem. Additionally, a set of audio summaries for each chapter in the book is available. These are designed so that you can download them onto your iPod, mp3 player, or computer and listen to them before taking a test. Because pro? ciency in logic involves exploitation a kill, it helps to work through the practice problems in Learning Logic and the exercises in the textbook more than once. This will help you see that good reasoning (and perverting reasoning, too) follows sure patterns whose identi? cation is crucial to success in logic. As you progress, I think you will ? nd that learning logic can be lots of fun, and working with the online resources should enhance your overall learning experience. mark off to the Instructor With this eleventh edition, Learning Logic is available both on CD and online. The CD comes free ifordered with a new book, or it can be ordered separately at www. engagebrain. com. Online, Learning Logic it is available through the Logic CourseMate site, a password protected website (www. cengage. com/sso). This website o? ers the bene? t of being able to check a students time on task, that is, how much time the student has played out using a particular supplement. Critical Thinking and Writing and Truthtrees are available free on the website, and they can to a fault be selected as modules in a custom version of the textbook. The videos, which cover topics students often have trouble with, are also available on Logic CourseMate.This edition also features Aplia, one of the Cengage Learning CourseMaster digital solutions. Aplia established a name for itself in the ? eld of economics, where it o? ers interactive online preparedness xvi Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, som e third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. assignments with incessant feedback to students. Providing automatic grading, Aplia increases student effort and keeps students accountable for course material while adding no additional paperwork to the instructors workload, go away instructors with more time to prepare lectures and work with students. As Aplia expands its o? erings to include additional subjects, it has won widespread acclaim from thousands of instructors across numerous disciplines. Now, Aplia o? ers its signature bene? s to logic students and instructors with a program speci? cally designed to enhance student engagement. The Aplia assignments build on the exercises in this textbook, and they conform to the language, style, and structure of the book. let me now turn to alternate ways of approaching the textbook. In general, the material in each chapter is arranged so that certain later sections can be skipped without a? ecting subsequent chapters. For example, those wishing a brief treatment of natural deduction in both propositional and predicate logic may want to skip the last three sections of Chapter 7 and the last four (or even ? e) sections of Chapter 8. Chapter 2 can be skipped altogether, although some may want to cover the ? rst section of that chapter as an introduction to Chapter 3. Finally, Chapters 9 through 14 direct only reasonably on earlier chapters, so these can be handle in any order one chooses. However, Chapter 14 does depend in part on Chapter 13. eccentric person of Course Traditional logic course Recommended material Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Sections 7. 17. 4 Informal logic course, critical reasoning course Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Ch apter 3 Chapter 4 Sections 5. 15. Sections 5. 55. 6 Sections 6. 16. 4 Section 6. 6 Chapter 9 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Writing Supplement Section 5. 4 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 5 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Course emphasizing modern formal logic Chapter 1 Sections 4. 14. 3 Section 4. 7 Sections 6. 16. 5 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Truth Tree Supplement nonmandatory material Chapter 2 Sections 7. 57. 7 Chapters 914 Chapter 3 Sections 4. 44. 6 Sections 5. 15. 2 Section 5. 7 Section 6. 6 Preface xvii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Acknowledgements For their reviews and su ggestions leading to this eleventh edition I want to thank the avocation Kevin Berry Scott Calef Gabriel Camacho Loren Cannon Victor Cosculluela Thompson gent Thomas J.Frost Paul Gass Alexander star sign Courtney Hammond Merle Harton Anthony Hanson Ron Jackson William Jamison Sandra Johanson Richard Jones Russel Jones William Lawhead Stephen Leach Keane Lundt Erik Meade Ian MacKinnon Allyson depend upon Seyed Mousavian Madeline Muntersbjorn Herminia Reyes Frank Ryan Eric Saidel Stephanie Semler Janet Simpson Aeon Skoble Joshua Smith Paula Smithka Krys Sulewski Brian Tapia William Vanderburgh Mark Vopat David Weise Shannon Grace Werre Katherine D.Witzig Stephen Wykstra Ohio University Ohio Wesleyan University El Paso friendship College Humboldt severalise University Polk postulate College University of Portland Biola University/Long brim city College Coppin assign University Clayton state of matter University Cuyamaca College Edward water College West Valley College Clayt on verbalize University University of Alaska anchorage ground cat valium River participation College Howard University University of okeh University of manuscript UTPA Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts southern Illinois UniversityEdwardsville The University of Akron Keene land College University of Alberta University of Toledo San Diego State University Kent State University George upper-case letter University Radford University Su? olk County community of interests College Bridgewater State College Central bread University University of gray disseminated multiple sclerosis Edmonds partnership College Foothill College Wichita State University Youngstown State University Gonzaga University Edmonds society College Southwestern Illinois College Calvin College Of course any errors or omissions that may remain are the result of my own oversight. eighteen Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Those who have contributed reviews and suggestions leading to the ten previous editions, and to whom I express my continue thanks, are the by-line James T. Anderson, University of San Diego carol Anthony, Villanova University Joseph Asike, Howard University Harriet E.Baber, University of San Diego Kent Baldner, Western clams University James Baley, bloody shame Washington College Jerome Balmuth, Colgate University Victor Balowitz, State University of New York, College at Buffalo Ida Baltikauskas, Century College Gary Baran, Los Angeles city College Robert Barnard, University of Mississippi Gregory Bassham, Kings College Thora Bayer, Xavi er University of Louisiana David Behan, Agnes Scott College tail end Bender, Ohio University, capital of Greece James O. Bennett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville Victoria Berdon, IUPU Columbus Robert Berman, Xavier University of Louisana Joseph Bessie, Normandale club College prat R. Bosworth, Oklahoma State University Andrew Botterell, University of Toronto tom turkey Browder, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Kevin Browne, atomic number 49 University Southeast Harold Brown, Northern Illinois University KenBuckman, University of Texas, trash American Robert Burch, Texas A&M University Keith Burgess-Jackson, University of Texas, Arlington Michael Byron, Kent State University James Campbell, University of Toledo Joseph Keim Campbell, Washington State University Charles Carr, argon State University William Carroll, Coppin State University Jennifer Caseldine-Bracht, IUPU Fort Wayne John Casey, Northern Illinois University Greg Cavin, Cypress College Robert Greg Cavin, Cypress Col lege Ping-Tung Chang, University of Alaska Prakash Chenjeri, Southern Oregon University Drew Christie, University of New Hampshire herds grass Christion, University of North Texas Ralph W. Clarke, West Virginia University David Clowney, Rowan University Michael Cole, College of William and bloody shame Michael J. Colson, Merced College William F. Cooper, Baylor University William Cornwell, Salem State College Victor Cosculluela, Polk Community College Mike Coste, Front Range Community College Ronald R. Cox, San Antonio College Houston A. Craighead, Winthrop University Donald Cress, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb Jack Crumley, University of San Diego Linda Damico, Kennesaw State University William J.DeAngelis, northeast University Joseph DeMarco, Cleveland State University Paul DeVries, Wheaton College Jill Dieterle, Eastern Michigan University Mary Domski, University of New Mexico Beverly R. Doss and Richard W. Doss, orangeness Coast College Paul Draper, Purdue University W illiam A. Drumin, Kings College, Pennsylvania Clinton Dunagan, Saint Philips College Paul Eckstein, Bergen Community College Anne M. Edwards, Austin Peay State University Lenore Erickson, Cuesta College Michael Epperson, calcium State University, Sacramento Cassandra Evans, San Diego urban center College Evan Fales, University of Iowa Lewis S. Ford, Old district University Gary Foulk, Indiana State University, Terre Haute LeAnn Fowler, wily swing University Thomas H. Franks, Eastern Michigan University Bernard D.Freydberg, Slippery argument University Frank Fair, Sam Houston State University Timothy C. Fout, University of Louisville Craig Fox, atomic number 20 University of Pennsylvania pecker Gaffney, Siena College George Gale, University of Missouri, Kansas City Pieranna Garavaso, University of Minnesota at Morris Joseph Georges, El Camino College Kevin Gibson, University of Colorado Victor Grassian, Los Angeles Harbor College J. Randall Groves, Ferris State University Shan non Grace, Edmunds Community College James Granitto, Santiago canyon College Catherine Green, rock musichurst University James Greene, Northern Michigan University Harold Greenstein, SUNY Brockport Shahrokh Haghighi, calcium State University Alexander W. residence, Clayton State University dean Hamden, Montclair State University Ken Hanly, Brandon University Larry Hauser, Alma College Deborah Heikes, University of Alabama in Huntsville Ronald Hill, University of San Diego Lawrence Hinman, University of San Diego Preface xix Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Dale Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University John B.Howell, III, Southwestern Baptist theological Seminary R. I. G. Hughes, University of South Carolina, capital of South Carolina Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University Peter Hutcheson, Texas State University Debby D. Hutchins, Boston College William H. Hyde, chromatic West College Sandra Johanson, Green River Community College Gary Jones, University of San Diego Glenn C. Joy, Texas State University, San Marcos Olin Joynton, North Harris County College Grant Julin, St. Francis University Glen Kessler, University of Virginia Charles F. Kielkopf, Ohio State University Moya Kinchla, Bakersfield College Bernard W. Kobes, genus Arizona State University Keith W.Krasemann, College of DuPage Richard La Croix, State University College at Buffalo Sandra LaFave, West Valley College, Saratoga, atomic number 20 Richard Lee, University of Arkansas Lory Lemke, University of Minnesota, Morris Robert Levis, Pasadena City College Chenyang Li, Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois Ardon Lyon, City University of capital of the United Kingdom Scott MacDonald, University of Iowa Krishna Mallick, Salem State College Thomas Manig, University of Missouri, Columbia James Manns, University of Kentucky Dalman Mayer, Bellevue Community College Larry D. Mayhew, Western Kentucky University Leemon Mc total heat, California State University, Northridge Robert McKay, Norwich University Rick McKita, Colorado State University Phillip McReynolds, Pennsylvania State University Noel Merino, Humboldt State University Kenneth R.Merrill, University of Oklahoma Thomas Michaud, Wheeling Jesuit College Dolores Miller, University of Missouri, Kansas City George D. Miller, DePaul University Richard Miller, East Carolina University Frederick Mills, Bowie State University Jeff Mitchell, Arkansas Tech University John Mize, Long Beach City College Dwayne Mulder, California State University, Fresno John D. Mullen, Dowling College Henry Nardone, Kings College There sa Norman, South Texas Community College David OConnor, Seton Hall University Len Olsen, gallium Southern University Elane ORourke, Moorpark College Brendan OSullivan, Rhodes College Linda Peterson, University of San Diego Rodney Peffer, University of San Diego Robert G.Pielke, El Camino College Cassandra Pinnick, Western Kentucky University Nelson Pole, Cleveland State University Norman Prigge, Bakersfield State University Gray Prince, West Los Angeles College R. Puligandla, University of Toledo T. R. Quigley, Oakland University Nani Rankin, Indiana University at Kokomo Robert Redmon, Virginia Commonwealth University Bruce Reichenbach, Augsburg College David Ring, Southern Wesleyan University Tony Roark, Boise State University Michael Rooney, Pasadena City College Phyllis Rooney, Oakland University Beth Rosdatter, University of Kentucky Michelle M. Rotert, Rock Valley College Paul A. Roth, University of Missouri, Saint Louis Daniel Rothbart, George mason University Robert Rupert , University of Colorado, Boulder Sam Russo, El Camino College Kelly Salsbery, Stephen F.Austin State University Eric Saidel, George Washington University Paul San give notice (of)i, Siena College Stephen Satris, Clemson University Phil Schneider, Coastal Carolina University Philip Schneider, George stonemason University James D. Schumaker, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Stephanie Semler, Radford University Pat Sewell, University of North Texas Elizabeth Shadish, El Camino College Joseph G. Shay, Boston College Dennis L. Slivinski, California State University, Channel Islands Arnold Smith, Youngstown State University JohnChristian Smith, Youngstown State University Paula Smithka, University of Southern Mississippi Eric W.Snider, University of Toledo Bob Snyder, Humboldt University Joseph Snyder, Anne Arundel Community College Lynne Spellman, University of Arkansas David Stern, University of Iowa James Stuart, Bowling Green State University John Sullins, Sonoma State Unive rsity John Sweigart, James Madison University Clarendon Swift, Moorpark College Wayne Swindall, California Baptist College Bangs Tapscott, University of do Ramon Tello, Shasta College Jan Thomas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock Phil Thompson, Eastern Illinois University Richard Tieszen, San Jose State University Larry Udell, West Chester University Ted Ulrich, Purdue xx Preface Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. University Robert Urekew, University of Louisville William Uzgalis, Oregon State University Thomas H. Warren, Solano Colleg Andrew J.Waskey, Dalton State University Roy Weatherford, University of South Florida Chris Weigand, Our dame of the Lake University David Weinburger, Stockton State College Paul Weirich, University of Missouri, Columbia Robert Wengert, University of Illinois, Urbana/ area Gerald Joseph Williams, Seton Hall University Frank Wilson, Bucknell University W. Kent Wilson, University of Illinois, Chicago Stephen Wykstra, Calvin College Marie Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College Jeffrey Zents, University of Texas Finally, it has been a pleasure working with philosophy editor Joann Kozyrev, exploitation editor Florence Kilgo, project manager Alison Eigel Zade, project editors Emily Winders and Amanda Hellenthal, and editorial assistant Michaela Henry. Preface xxi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 Basic Concepts 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Recognizing Arguments Deduction and Induction Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency Argument Forms Proving Invalidity Extended Arguments 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions Logic may be de? ned as the organized dust of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments. All of us clangor arguments in our day-to-day experience. We read them in books and newspapers, hear them on television, and formulate them when communication with friends and associates. The aim of logic is to develop a system of regularitys and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.Among the bene? ts to be expect from the study of logic is an increase in con? dence that we are making sense when we criticize the arguments of others and when we advance arguments of our own. An argument, in its most basic form, is a assemblage of statements, one or more of which (the antecede) are claimed to provide turn out for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the consequence). All arguments may be placed in one of two basic groups those in which the set forth really do support the final stage and those in which they do not, even though they are claimed to. The former are said to be good arguments (at least(prenominal) to that extent), the latter bad arguments.The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates arguments, is thus to develop methods and techniques that quit us to distinguish good arguments from bad. As is apparent from the given definition, the term argument has a very specific meaning in logic. It does not mean, for example, a sheer verbal ? ght, as one baronhave with ones parent, spouse, or friend. Let us examine the features of this de? nition in Additional resources are available on the Logic CourseMate website. 1 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 greater detail. First of all, an argument is a group of statements. A statement is a disapprobation that is either true or falsein other words, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative sentence. The following sentences are statements Chocolate truffles are loaded with calories. Melatonin helps discharge jet lag. Political candidates always tell the complete truth.No wives ever cheat on their husbands. Tiger Woods plays golf and maria Sharapova plays tennis. The first two statements are true, the fleck two false. The last one expresses two statements, both of which are true. Truth and fickleness are called the two possible truth values of a statement. Thus, the truth value of the ? rst two statements is true, the truth value of the second two is false, and the truth value of the last statement, as well as that of its components, is true. unconnected statements, many senten ces cannot be said to be either true or false. Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, and exclamations normally cannot, and so are not unremarkably classi? ed as statements.The following sentences are not statements Where is Khartoum? Lets go to a movie tonight. I suggest you get contact lenses. Turn off the TV right now. wild (question) (proposal) (suggestion) (command) (exclamation) The statements that make up an argument are divided into one or more exposit and one and only one conclusion. The premises are the statements that set onwards the reasons or evidence, and the conclusion is the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply. In other words, the conclusion is the statement that is claimed to follow from the premises. present is an example of an argument All shoot down stars are celebrities. Halle Berry is a scoot star.Therefore, Halle Berry is a celebrity. The ? rst two statements are the premises the third is the conclusion. (The claim that the premises support or imply the conclusion is indicated by the word therefore. ) In this argument the premises really do support the conclusion, and so the argument is a good one. But consider this argument slightly spud stars are men. Cameron Diaz is a film star. Therefore, Cameron Diaz is a man. In this argument the premises do not support the conclusion, even though they are claimed to, and so the argument is not a good one. angiotensin converting enzyme of the most important tasks in the abstract of arguments is being able to distinguish premises from conclusions.If what is thought to be a conclusion is really a premise, and vice versa, the subsequent analysis cannot possibly be correct. Manyarguments 2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed tha t any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. contain indication words that provide clues in identifying premises and conclusion. some typical conclusion index numbers are therefore wherefore thus consequently we may infer therefore we may conclude it must be that for this reason so entails that hence it follows that implies that as a result 1 Whenever a statement follows one of these forefingers, it can ordinarily be identi? ed as the conclusion. By process of elimination the other statements in the argument are the premises. Example tormented prisoners will say anything just to disengage the pain. Consequently, torture is not a trustworthy method of interrogation. The conclusion of this argument is pain is not a reliable method of interrogation, and the premise is Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relie ve the pain. Premises Claimed evidence Conclusion What is claimed to follow from the evidenceIf an argument does not contain a conclusion indicator, it may contain a premise indicator. Some typical premise indicators are since as indicated by because for in that may be inferred from as given that seeing that for the reason that in as much as owing to Any statement following one of these indicators can usually be identi? ed as a premise. Example with child(p) mothers should never use unskilled drugs, since the use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus. The premise of this argument is The use of these drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus, and the conclusion is Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs. In reviewing the list of indicators, note that for this reason is a conclusion indicator, whereas for the reason that is a premise indicator. For this reason (except Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 3 Copyright 2010 Cenga ge Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 hen followed by a colon) means for the reason (premise) that was just given, so what follows is the conclusion. On the other hand, for the reason that announces that a premise is about to be stated. Sometimes a single indicator can be used to identify more than one premise. Consider the following argument It is vitally important that state of nature areas be preserved, for wild provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and it is a natural kip down from the stress of daily life. The premise indicator for goes with bot h Wilderness provides essential habitat for wildlife, including endangered species, and It is a natural retrogress from the stress of daily life. These are the premises. By method of elimination, It is vitally important that wilderness areas be preserved is the conclusion. Some arguments contain no indicators. With these, the reader/listener must ask such questions as What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others? What is the arguer trying to prove? What is the main point in the passage? The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion. Example The length program deserves change magnitude expenditures in the years ahead. Not only does the national excuse depend on it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot carry through its anticipated potential. The conclusion of this argument is the ? rst statement, and all of the other statements are prem ises. The argument illustrates the pattern found in most arguments that lack indicator words the intend conclusion is stated ? rst, and the remaining statements are then o? ered in support of this ? rst statement. When the argument is restructured match to logical principles, however, the conclusion is always listed after the premises P1 P2 P3 C The national defense is dependent on the set program. The space program will more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential. The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. When restructuring arguments such as this, one should remain as virtually as possible to the original version, while at the same time tending to the requirement that premises and conclusion be complete sentences that are meaningful in the order in which they are listed. Note that the ? rst two premises are included within the scope of a single senten ce in the original argument. For the purposes of this chapter, compound arrangements of statements in which the various components are all claimed to be true will be considered as separate statements.Passages that contain arguments sometimes contain statements that are neither premises nor conclusions. Only statements that are actually intended to support the conclusion should be included in the list of premises. If, for example, a statement 4 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. erves merely to introduce the general topic, or merely makes a passing comment, it should not be taken as part of the argument. Examples The claim is often made that malpractice lawsuits movement up the cost of health care. But if such suits were outlawed or badly restricted, then patients would have no means of recovery for injuries caused by negligent doctors. Hence, the handiness of malpractice litigation should be maintained intact. vast federal deficits push up interest rates for everyone. Servicing the debt gobbles up a huge portion of the federal budget, which lowers our well-worn of living. And big deficits also weaken the value of the dollar. For these reasons, Congress must make a determined effort to cut overall spending and raise taxes.Politicians who ignore this man imperil the future of the nation. 1 In the ? rst argument, the opening statement serves merely to introduce the topic, so it is not part of the argument. The premise is the second statement, and the conclusion is the last statement. In the second argument, the ? n al statement merely makes a passing comment, so it is not part of the argument. The premises are the ? rst three statements, and the statement following for these reasons is the conclusion. Closely related to the concepts of argument and statement are those of inference and proposition. An inference, in the narrow sense of the term, is the reasoning process expressed by an argument.In the broad sense of the term, inference is used interchangeably with argument. Analogously, a proposition, in the narrow sense, is the meaning or information content of a statement. For the purposes of this book, however, proposition and statement are used interchangeably. Note on the History of Logic The person who is generally credited as the pay off of logic is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 b. c. ). Aristotles predecessors had been interested in the art of constructing convincing arguments and in techniques for refuting the arguments of others, but it was Aristotle who ? rst devi sed systematic criteria for analyzing and evaluating arguments.Aristotles chief accomplishment is called syllogistic logic, a large-hearted of logic in which the fundamental elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are arranged in the argument. Chapters 4 and 5 of this textbook are given up mainly to syllogistic logic. But Aristotle also deserves credit for originating modal logic, a kind of logic that involves such concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt. In addition, Aristotle catalogued several informal fallacies, a topic treated in Chapter 3 of this book. later Aristotles death, another Greek philosopher, Chrysippus (280206 b. c. ), one of the founders of the Stoic school, substantial a logic in which the fundamental elements were whole propositions.Chrysippus treated every proposition as either true or false and developed rules for determining the truth or insincerity of compound propositions from the truth or untruth of their components. In the course of doing so, he displace the foundation for the truth functional description of the logical connectives presented in Chapter 6 of this book and introduced the notion of natural deduction, treated in Chapter 7. Section 1. 1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 5 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 1 For thirteen hundred years after the death of Chrysippus, relatively little seminal work was done in logic. The physician Galen (a. d. 129ca. 199) developed the theory of the compound unconditional syllogism, but for the most part philosophers con? ned themselves to writing commentaries on the works of Aristotle and Chrysippus. Boethius (ca. 480524) is a noteworthy example. The ? rst major logician of the marrow Ages was Peter Abelard (10791142). Abelard reconstructed and re? ed the logic of Aristotle and Chrysippus as communicated by Boethius, and he originated a theory of universals that traced the universal mention of general terms to concepts in the discernment rather than to natures existing outside the mind, as Aristotle had held. In addition, Abelard distinguished arguments that arevalid because of their form from those that are valid because of their content, but he held that only formal validity is the perfect or conclusive variety. The present text